Chapter 1: Computer System

1.1 Introduction to Computer System

• Computer: An electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it,
and generate results (output).

• Computer System: A computer along with additional hardware and software.

• Primary Components: Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and
storage devices.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU):

o The electronic circuitry that carries out actual processing, often called the "brain of
the computer" or processor.

o It fetches programs and data from memory, performs arithmetic and logic
operations, and stores results back to memory.

o Components:

▪ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic and logic operations.

▪ Control Unit (CU): Controls sequential instruction execution, interprets

instructions, and guides data flow.

▪ Registers: Local memory within the CPU chip for storing data, instructions,
or intermediate results (limited in size and number).

• Input Devices:

o Devices through which control signals or data are sent to a computer, converting
input data into a digital form.

o Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, braille keyboards, voice input.
Data is temporarily stored in RAM.

• Output Devices:

o Devices that receive data from a computer for display, physical production, etc.,
converting digital information into human-understandable form.

o Examples: Monitor, projector, headphone, speaker, printer (inkjet, laserjet, dot

matrix, 3D printer), braille display monitor.

1.2 Evolution of Computer

• Key Inventions/Concepts:

o Abacus (around 3000 years ago): Mechanical device for simple arithmetic.

o Pascaline (1642): Mechanical calculator by Blaize Pascal for addition and subtraction.

o Analytical Engine (1834): Invented by Charles Babbage, considered the basis of

modern computers for inputting, processing, storing, and displaying output.
 o Turing Machine Concept (1937): General purpose programmable machine capable
of solving any problem by executing a program stored on punched cards.

o Stored Program Computer Concept (1945): Introduced by John Von Neumann,

capable of storing data and program in memory; EDVAC and ENIAC were based on
this.

▪ Von Neumann Architecture: Consists of CPU, memory, input/output devices,

and communication channels.

▪ ENIAC: First binary programmable computer based on Von Neumann

architecture.

o Transistor (1947): Replaced vacuum tubes, using semiconductor materials.

o Integrated Circuit (IC): Silicon chip containing entire electronic circuit, drastically
reduced computer size.

o Large Scale Integration (LSI), Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), Super Large Scale
Integration (SLSI): Increased integration of components on a single chip, leading to
microprocessors and exponential growth in processing power.

• Moore's Law (1965): Predicted that the number of transistors on a chip would double every
two years while costs would be halved.

• Modern Evolution: Personal computers (PCs) by IBM (1981) and Apple Macintosh (1984),
Graphical User Interface (GUI) popularized by Microsoft, growth of World Wide Web (WWW)
in 1990s, laptops, smartphones, tablets, wearable gadgets, Internet of Things (IoT) leveraging
Artificial Intelligence (AI).

1.3 Computer Memory

• Purpose: To store data and instructions for processing.

• Main/Primary Memory: Used for immediate processing.

• Secondary Memory/Storage Device: Used for permanent storage and future use.

• Units of Memory:

o Bit: Binary digits 0 and 1, basic unit.

o Nibble: 4-bit word.

o Byte: 8-bit word (two nibbles).

o Larger units: Kilobyte (KB = 1024 Bytes), Megabyte (MB = 1024 KB), Gigabyte (GB =
1024 MB), Terabyte (TB = 1024 GB), Petabyte (PB = 1024 TB), Exabyte (EB = 1024 PB),
Zettabyte (ZB = 1024 EB), Yottabyte (YB = 1024 ZB).

• Types of Memory:

o Primary Memory:

▪ Random Access Memory (RAM):

 ▪ Volatile: Retains data only as long as power is supplied; contents
wiped when power is off.

▪ Temporary storage while computer is working.

▪ Faster than secondary memory.

▪ CPU interacts directly with RAM for read/write operations.

▪ Read Only Memory (ROM):

▪ Non-volatile: Contents not lost when power is off.

▪ Small, faster permanent storage for rarely changed contents (e.g.,

boot loader program).

o Cache Memory:

▪ Very high-speed memory placed between CPU and primary memory.

▪ Stores copies of frequently accessed primary memory locations to reduce

average data access time.

o Secondary Memory (Auxiliary/Storage Devices):

▪ Non-volatile: For permanent storage of data/instructions.

▪ Larger storage capacity than primary memory.

▪ Slower and cheaper than main memory.

▪ Cannot be accessed directly by the CPU; contents must be brought into

main memory first.

▪ Examples: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD), CD/DVD, Memory
Card, Flash/Pen drives.

1.4 Data Transfer between Memory and CPU

• Bus: Physical wires used for data transfer between different components of a computer
system.

o Data Bus: Transfers data between components; bidirectional.

o Address Bus: Transfers addresses between CPU and main memory; unidirectional.

o Control Bus: Communicates control signals between components; unidirectional.

o These three collectively form the system bus.

• Memory Controller: Dedicated hardware that manages the flow of data into and out of the
computer's main memory.

1.5 Microprocessors

• Microprocessor: A processor (CPU) implemented on a single microchip. Terms "processor"

and "CPU" are often used synonymously for microprocessors.
• Function: Carries out data processing, arithmetic, and logical operations. Built over an
integrated circuit comprising millions of components.

• Evolution: Increased processing capability, decreasing physical size, and reduced cost.

• Specifications:

o Word Size: Maximum number of bits a microprocessor can process at a time (e.g., 8-
bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit).

o Memory Size: Varies with word size (e.g., 1KB for 4/8 bit to 64GB for 64 bit).

o Clock Speed: Number of pulses generated per second by the internal clock,
indicating the speed of instruction execution (measured in Hz, kHz, MHz, GHz).

o Cores: Basic computation unit of the CPU. Multicore processors (dual-core, quad-
core, octa-core) allow execution of multiple tasks simultaneously, increasing
performance.

• Microcontrollers:

o A small computing device with a CPU, fixed amount of RAM, ROM, and other
peripherals embedded on a single chip.

o Designed for specific tasks only, leading to reduced size and cost.

o Examples: Keyboard, mouse, washing machine, digital camera, pendrive, remote

controller, microwave. They are embedded in other devices to perform specific
functionalities (e.g., controlling a washing cycle).

1.6 Data and Information

• Data: Raw and unorganised facts, concepts, instructions, etc., that are processed to get
meaningful information. Internally stored in binary (0s and 1s).

• Information: Meaningful output derived from processed data.

• Types of Data:

o Structured Data: Follows a strict record structure, easy to comprehend, usually in

tabular format (e.g., attendance records, sales transactions, online railway ticket
bookings).

o Unstructured Data: Not organised in a pre-defined record format (e.g., audio/video

files, graphics, text documents, social media posts, satellite images).

o Semi-structured Data: No well-defined structure but maintains internal tags or

markings to separate data elements (e.g., email document, HTML page, comma
separated values (CSV) file).

• Data Capturing, Storage, and Retrieval:

o Data Capturing: Gathering data from different sources in digital form (e.g., keyboard,
barcode readers, social media posts, sensors).

o Data Storage: Storing captured data for later processing, often in data servers for
large organisations.
 o Data Retrieval: Fetching data from storage devices for processing; minimising access
time is crucial.

• Data Deletion and Recovery:

o Deletion: When data is "deleted," its address entry is marked as free, space shown
as empty, but data is not physically erased until overwritten.

o Recovery: Retrieving deleted, corrupted, or lost data from secondary storage,

possible only if memory space has not been overwritten.

o Security Concerns:

▪ Unauthorised deletion (mitigated by access limits, passwords, encryption).

▪ Unwanted recovery from discarded devices (mitigated by using proper tools

to shred data).

1.7 Software

• Software: A set of instructions that operates hardware; cannot be physically touched or

viewed.

• Purpose: Makes computer hardware useful and operational, acts as an interface between
human users and hardware.

• Soft-copy vs. Hard-copy: Digital document/image is soft-copy; printed version is hard-copy.

• Categories of Software:

o System Software:

▪ Provides basic functionality to operate a computer, interacting directly with

hardware.

▪ Examples: Operating systems, system utilities, device drivers.

▪ Operating System (OS): The most basic system software; manages other
application programs, provides access and security. (Windows, Linux,
Macintosh, Ubuntu, Android, iOS).

▪ System Utilities: Software for maintenance and configuration (e.g., disk

defragmentation, anti-virus, disk cleaner).

▪ Device Drivers: Ensures proper functioning of a particular device, acts as an

interface between the device and the operating system.

o Programming Tools:

▪ Used for writing instructions in computer languages.

▪ Programming Languages:

▪ Low-level Languages: Machine-dependent.

▪ Machine Language: Uses 1s and 0s, directly understood by

computer; difficult to write and debug.
 ▪ Assembly Language: Uses English-like words/symbols;
computer-specific (not portable).

▪ High-level Languages: Machine-independent, simpler to write using

English-like sentences (e.g., C++, Java, Python).

▪ Language Translators: Convert source code (program written in assembly or

high-level language) into machine understandable object code.

▪ Assembler: Converts assembly language to machine language.

▪ Compiler: Converts whole high-level source code into machine code

at once; compiler is not needed after translation.

▪ Interpreter: Translates one line at a time from high-level source

code into executable code; interpreter is always needed whenever
source code is executed.

▪ Program Development Tools: Text editor, Integrated Development

Environment (IDE) (e.g., Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse), Debugger.

o Application Software:

▪ Works on top of system software to cater to specific requirements of end-

users.

▪ A computer system can work without application software, but not without
system software (OS).

▪ General Purpose Software: Developed for generic applications to cater to a

bigger audience (e.g., LibreOffice Calc, Adobe Photoshop, Mozilla web
browser, iTunes).

▪ Customised Software: Tailor-made for a specific organisation or individual

(e.g., websites, school management software, accounting software).

• Proprietary vs. Free and Open Source Software:

o Free and Open Source Software (FOSS): Source code and software are freely
available to the public for development and improvement (e.g., Ubuntu, Python,
Libreoffice, Mozilla Firefox).

o Freeware: Software is freely available for use, but source code may not be available
(e.g., Skype, Adobe Reader).

o Proprietary Software: Software that must be purchased from the vendor who holds
the copyright (e.g., Microsoft Windows, Tally, Quickheal).

1.8 Operating System (OS)

• Role: A resource manager that manages all computer resources (hardware like CPU, RAM,
Disk, Network, I/O devices) and controls application software and device drivers, manages
system security, and handles user access.

• Primary Objectives:
 1. Provide services for building and running application programs (loads programs into
memory, allocates to CPU, decides execution order).

2. Provide an interface for user interaction.

• OS User Interface Types:

o Command-based Interface (CLI): Users enter commands via keyboard; less

interactive, often single program at a time (e.g., MS-DOS, Unix).

o Graphical User Interface (GUI): Users interact with icons, menus, and visual options
using mouse and keyboard (e.g., Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora, Macintosh).

o Touch-based Interface: Users interact using touch input on touchscreens (e.g.,

Android, iOS, Windows 8.1/10).

o Voice-based Interface: Users use voice commands (e.g., iOS Siri, Android Google
Now, Windows Cortana).

o Gesture-based Interface: Users interact using gestures like waving, tilting, eye
motion, shaking (e.g., some Android/iOS smartphones, laptops).

• Functions of Operating System:

o Process Management: Manages multiple running tasks (processes), allocates CPU

and resources, facilitates information exchange among processes.

o Memory Management: Allocates and frees primary (main) memory dynamically to

running processes, keeping track of memory usage.

o File Management: Manages creation, updation, deletion, and protection of files in

secondary storage. Provides security mechanisms to restrict unauthorised access.

o Device Management: Manages heterogeneous I/O devices, interacts with device

drivers, provides configuration options, and restricts device access to authorised
users/software.