Errors & Uncertainties

Random & Systematic Errors

 Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that
quantity
 In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be
a degree of uncertainty
 The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and
the true value
 Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to
uncertainty

Random error

 Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result

of uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
 This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of
results about the mean value
 To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an average
from them

Systematic error

 Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the
experimental method
 This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is
followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
 To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the technique
being used should be corrected or adjusted
 Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

Zero error

 This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading
when the true reading is zero
 This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the
results are recorded

Precision & Accuracy

 Precision of a measurement: this is how close the measured values are to each other;
if a measurement is repeated several times, then they can be described as precise
when the values are very similar to, or the same as, each other
 The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded - measurements to
a greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole
number
 Accuracy: this is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy can be
increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean average
 The difference between precise and accurate results

Exam Tip
It is very common for students to confuse precision with accuracy - measurements can be
precise but not accurate if each measurement reading has the same error. Precision refers to
the ability to take multiple readings with an instrument that are close to each other, whereas
accuracy is the closeness of those measurements to the true value.

Calculating Uncertainties
Calculating Uncertainty

 There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty
can be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the
equipment or techniques used) and the true value
 Uncertainties are not the same as errors
o Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a
reading to be different from the true value
o The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the
true value is expected to lie, and is an estimate
 For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error
with a balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
 These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
o Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
o Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the
measurement
o Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the
measurement
  To find uncertainties in different situations:
 The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
 The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
 The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
 The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise
quoted

How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

Combining Uncertainties

 The rules to follow

 Adding / subtracting data – add the absolute uncertainties
 Multiplying / dividing data – add the percentage uncertainties
  Raising to a power – multiply the uncertainty by the power

Measurement Techniques

Measurement Techniques

 Common instruments used in Physics are:

o Metre rules - to measure distance and length
o Balances - to measure mass
o Protractors - to measure angles
o Stopwatches - to measure time
o Ammeters - to measure current
o Voltmeters - to measure potential difference
 More complicated instruments such as the micrometer screw gauge and Vernier
calipers can be used to more accurately measure length
 When using measuring instruments like these you need to ensure that you are fully
aware of what each division on a scale represents
o This is known as the resolution
 The resolution is the smallest change in the physical quantity being measured that
results in a change in the reading given by the measuring instrument
 The smaller the change that can be measured by the instrument, the greater the
degree of resolution
 For example, a standard mercury thermometer has a resolution of 1°C whereas a
typical digital thermometer will have a resolution of 0.1°C
o The digital thermometer has a higher resolution than the mercury
thermometer
 Measuring Instruments Table

Micrometer Screw Gauge

 A micrometer, or a micrometer screw gauge, is a tool used for measuring small

widths, thicknesses or diameters
o For example, the diameter of a copper wire
 It has a resolution of 0.01 mm
 The micrometer is made up of two scales:
o The main scale - this is on the sleeve (sometimes called the barrel)
o The thimble scale - this is a rotating scale on the thimble

 The spindle and anvil are closed around the object being measured by rotating
the ratchet
o This should be tight enough so the object does not fall out but not so tight
that is deformed
o Never tighten the spindle using the barrel, only using the ratchet. This
will reduce the chances of overtightening and zero errors
 The value measured from the micrometer is read where the thimble scale aligns
with the main scale
o This should always be recorded to 2 decimal places (eg. 1.40 mm not just
1.4 mm)
 How to operate a micrometer

Vernier Calipers

 Vernier calipers are another distance measuring tool that uses a sliding vernier
scale
o They can also be used to measure diameters and thicknesses, just like the
micrometer
o However, they can also measure the length of small objects such as a screw
or the depth of a hole
 Vernier calipers generally have a resolution of 0.1 mm, however, some are as small
as 0.02 mm - 0.05 mm
 The calipers are made up of two scales:
o The main scale
o The vernier scale
 The two upper or lower jaws are clamped around the object
o The sliding vernier scale will follow this and can be held in place using the
locking screw
 The value measured from the caliper is read when the vernier scale aligns with the
main scale
o This should always be recorded to at least 1 decimal place (eg. 12.1 mm not
just 12 mm)

The vernier caliper reading is read when the vernier scale aligns with the main
scale.