Tunnels

Introduction
• Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation.

• They could be used for carrying freights and passengers, water,

sewage, etc

• Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic

during construction.

• Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges

• Feasibility of these constructions in natural materials, such as rock

and soil, causes the geological conditions to play a major role in their
stability.

• Aspects of major importance and that is decisive for the feasibility of

a tunnel project is geological conditions, construction time and costs.
Basics of Tunnels
• Tunnel is an artificially constructed underground passage to by-
pass obstacles safely without disturbing the over burden. Tunnels
are created by the process of excavation.

• Open Cut is an "open to sky" passage excavated through huge soil

mass of obstacle, in the required directions to connect two roads
or railways.

• Tunnels are underground passages for Road or rail traffic,

Pedestrians, Utilities, Fresh water or sewer lines.

• A tunnel must be completely enclosed on all sides along the length.

 Basics of Tunnels
• Ratio of length to width, in a tunnel, should always be at least in 2: 1.

• Tunnelling is desirable when rapid transport facilities are required

which need to avoid acquisition of land for roads. Tunnels are also
erected when shortest route connection is needed in cities.

• Tunnels permit easy gradient & encourage high speed on strategic

routes. Some structures may require excavation similar to tunnel
excavation, but are not actually tunnels. Shafts, for example, are often
hand-dug or dug with boring equipment.

• But unlike tunnels, shafts are vertical and shorter. Often, shafts are
built either as part of a tunnel project to analyze the rock or soil, or in
tunnel construction to provide headings, or locations, from which a
tunnel can be excavated.
 Basics of Tunnels
• The diagram shows the relationship
between these underground
structures in a typical mountain tunnel.
The opening of the tunnel is a portal.
The "roof" of the tunnel, or the top half
of the tube, is the crown. The bottom
half is the invert. The basic geometry
of the tunnel is a continuous arch.
Because tunnels must withstand
tremendous pressure from all sides,
the arch is an ideal shape. In the case
of a tunnel, the arch simply goes all
the way around.
Atal Tunnel
• Atal Tunnel is like a blessing for many locals of Lahaul Spiti who
could not connect with the rest of the world due to road
connectivity being fractured by heavy snow fall. It is a 9 kilometer
long tunnel which connects Manali to Lahaul Spiti Valley throughout
the year. It is the perfect place to visit in India as you will be
witnessing the longest tunnel in the world.
Tunnel Design Criteria
• Tunnelling requires proper design. Every tunnel will have its own geometry,
design, alignment, and construction methods.

• The tunnel design criteria include the following aspects:

1. Spatial Requirements;

2. Alignment;

3. Underground Stations;

4. Fire Life Safety; and Tunnel Systems and Operation.

• Every tunnel should have its own Horizontal and Vertical Alignment, Tunnel
Ventilation, Tunnel Lighting, Electrical and Safety Equipment, Tunnel
Drainage, Fire Life Safety, and Security.
Factors to be considered in
tunneling
The following factors should be taken into consideration when selecting the
method: -
1. Tunnel dimensions,
2. Tunnel geometry
3. Length of tunnel,
4. Total volume to be excavated
5. Geological and rock mechanical conditions
6. Ground water level and expected water inflow
7. Vibration restrictions &
8. Allowed ground settlements.
Tunnel alignment
• Tunnel alignment is an important aspect in
engineering constructions.
• The primary objectives of the tunnel alignments
are to:
1. Reduce transit trip times;
2. Increase quality and reliability of service; and
3. Minimize impacts of surface transit operations in
sensitive locations.
Selection of Tunnel alignment
Selection of Tunnel alignment depends on:
1. Topography of area & points of entrance and
exit,
2. Selection of site of tunnel to be made
considering two points.
3. Alignment Restraints
4. Environmental Considerations.
Classification of Tunnels
• The types of tunnels are classified based on three aspects:
• Based on purpose (road, rail, utilities),
• Based on Alignment
• Based on surrounding material (soft clay vs. hard rock ) &
• Submerged tunnels.
Egyptians and Babylonians constructed tunnels about 4000
years ago with a length of 910 m , width –of 3600 mm and a
height of 4500mm. The Channel Tunnel was constructed by
linking Britain & France, way back in 1994. The total length
was about 50 km. The undersea component itself is about 39
km.
Classification of Tunnels
The method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as
the ground conditions, the ground water conditions, the length
and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the
logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and
shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common
use: Cut-and-cover tunnel, constructed in a shallow trench
and then covered over; Bored tunnel, constructed in situ,
without removing the ground above.
There are also Conveyance Tunnels and Traffic Tunnels.
Shallow tunnels are of a cut-and-cover type (if under water of
the immersed-tube type). Deep tunnels are excavated, often
using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both
methods are possible
Based on Alignment
1. Off-Spur tunnels : Short length tunnels to negotiate minor
obstacles.
2. Saddle or base tunnels : tunnels constructed in valleys
along natural slope
3. Slope tunnels : constructed in steep hills for economic and
safe operation .
4. Spiral Tunnels : constructed in narrow valleys in form of
loops in interior of mountains so as to increase length of
tunnel to avoid steep slopes
Based on Purpose

1. Conveyance tunnel
2. Traffic tunnels
Based on Shape
• Circular Shaped Tunnels
• Horse Shoe Tunnels
• D-Shaped Tunnels
• Elliptical Tunnels
• Rectangular Tunnels
• Egg-Shaped Tunnels
Based on Shape
Elliptical Shaped Tunnels For carrying water, elliptical-shaped
tunnels are appropriate. These are suitable in softer material. For
better resistance to external pressure, the major axis of these tunnels
is maintained vertically.
Based on type of material met with
in construction
1. Tunnels in Hard Rock
2. Tunnels in Soft materials
3. Tunnels in Water Bearing Soils
4. Tunnels In Open Cuts
Size of the Tunnel
• Determined from utility aspect
• Road tunnels –No. of traffic lanes.
• Railway tunnels –
• Provision for drainage facilities
• Clear opening required for traffic.
• Nature of traffic
Nature of substratum
• Hard Rock or fully self-supporting
• Soft Soils –requiring temporary supports
during and after construction.

Tunnelling in soft soils: Challenges,

Preventing soil movements: Soil pressure,
Water seepage.
Tunnel lining materials
• Permanent linings are required in most tunnels, always in
soft ground and frequently in rock. They are required for two
purposes: structurally to retain the earth and water
pressure, and operationally to provide an internal surface
appropriate to the function of the tunnel.
Tunnel Lining
• The objectives of a lining are as follows.
(a) Strengthening the sides and roofs to withstand pressure
and prevent the tunnel from collapsing.
(b) Providing the correct shape and cross section to the
tunnel.
(c) Checking the leakage of water from the sides and the top.
(d) Binding loose rock and providing stability to the tunnel.
(e) Reducing the maintenance cost of the tunnel.
Guniting
• Guniting is a process used in
construction for slope
stabilization and various
other rehabilitation purposes
in the construction of
retaining walls, water
retaining structures and
concrete repair works.
Brickwork, blockwork and
masonry
Brickwork, blockwork and masonry had
been used for tunnel lining but now they are
obsolete.
Insitu concrete
• Insitu concrete lining is frequently in rock tunnelling where
the roof is able to stay unsupported temporary. Specially
designed travelling formwork is used for casting the
concrete.
Sprayed Concrete
• Sprayed concrete linings usually compose of rock
bolts, wire mesh, steel ribs and a thin layer or
sprayed concrete. This kind of lining is rather
flexible than other types of linings.
Thickness of tunnel
• The thickness of concrete lining depends upon various factors such
as conditions of the ground, size and shape of the tunnel, soil
pressure, and the method of concreting. The thickness of concrete
is calculated by the following empirical formula:
T = 0.083D (30.1)
where T is the thickness of the lining in centimetres and D is the
diameter of the tunnel in metres.

• On the basis of field experience, railway engineers have devised a

thumb rule of providing 2.5 cm of lining for every 30 cm of the
diameter of the tunnel. As per this thumb rule, the thickness of the
lining of a tunnel with a 1 m diameter would be (100/30) × 2.5 cm =
8.3 cm.
Ventilation of Tunnels

(a) To provide fresh air to the workers during construction.

(b) To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting, and other tunneling

operations.

(c) To remove dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by

the use of dynamites and explosives.

Details of a Tunnel Inspection
The following features of a tunnel require detailed inspection and examination.

Portal at either end This is inspected to ascertain whether there are any signs of
slips in the slopes above the portals or whether the masonry is in any way cracked,
shaken, or bulging, or whether there are any apparent signs of movement.

Section of tunnel in relation to moving dimensions This inspection is done to

check if the section, whether on straight routes or curves, conforms to the schedule
of dimensions.

Tunnel walls and roofing These are inspected in the case of lined tunnels to
ascertain whether the lining is in a satisfactory condition. Doubtful places, such as
loose projections, should be tapped to check for hollow sound or loose rock.
Details of a Tunnel Inspection
Drainage This is inspected to ascertain whether the side drains are
adequate and functional.
Ventilation shafts These are inspected to ascertain whether the
ventilation shafts are adequate and free from vegetation and other growth.
Lighting equipment and special tools This inspection of these features
is required to ascertain whether the lighting equipment and special tools,
wherever supplied, are in a good state.
Track The track is inspected to ascertain whether its line and level are
correct, including that of the approaches. Rails, sleepers, and fastenings
should be particularly examined for corrosion.
TUNNELLING IN HARD ROCK
Jumbo drill
Heading and bench method
• In this method, the heading (top or upper half) of the tunnel is bored
first and then the bench (bottom or lower half) follows. The heading
portion lies about 3.70 m to 4.60 m ahead of the bench portion (Fig.
30.3).

• In hard rock, the drill holes for the bench are driven at the same time
as the removal of the muck. The hard rock permits the roof to stay in
place without supports.
TUNNELING IN SOFT SOILS
• Challenges
• Preventing soil movements
• Soil pressure
• Water seepage

• Techniques
• Cut and Cover
• à Supporting Beams
• à Roof lining
• Tunnel Shields
TYPES OF SOFT SOIL
FOREPOLING METHOD
In this method, a frame is prepared in the shape of the letter A,
placed near the face of the tunnel, and covered with suitable
planks.
Poles are then inserted at the top of the frame up to a viable
depth. The excavation is carried out below these poles, which
are supported by vertical posts.
The excavation is carried out on the sides and the excavated
portion is suitably supported by timber. The entire section of
the tunnel is covered thus. The process is repeated as the
work progresses.
Forepoling is a slow and tedious process and requires skilled
manpower and strict supervision. The method has to be
meticulously repeated in sequence and there is no short cut
for the same.
Needle beam method
• Suitable for firm ground.
• Needle beam consist of a stout timber
beam from main temporary support.
• Roof of this drift is lagged with sheeting.
• With help of jacks, drift is widened
sideways
Needle beam method
• The needle beam method is adopted in terrains where the soil
permits the roof of the tunnel section to stand without support for a
few minutes.
• In this method, a small drift is prepared for inserting a needle
beam consisting of two rail steel (RS) joists or I sections and is
bolted together with a wooden block in the centre.
• The roof is supported on laggings carried on the wooden beam.
The needle beam is placed horizontally with its front end
supported on the drift and the rear end supported on a vertical
post resting on the lining of the tunnel.
• Jacks are fixed on the needle beam and the tunnel section is
excavated by suitably incorporating timber. This method of
tunnelling is more economical compared to other methods.
BELGIAN METHOD
BELGIAN METHOD
• It is used moderately firm or hard soils.
• Heading is widened sideways, and supported by additional crown bars on
sill.
• Inserted the shore at side and excavate the mop.
• This method is particularly suitable for areas where the height of the
overburden is less and the surface is not to be disturbed. In this case, the
heading is excavated first and supported by crown bar posts and
laggings. The sides are excavated next and supported by crown bars and
posts. Finally, the work of lining the arch is carried out and further
excavation is done
Army method
• It is derived by USA army for constructing small tunnels at shallow
depth.
• A top braced is removed and ground is excavated for a short
distance.
• The box is moved ahead and set next cap
American method
• It is used for railway or highway tunneling.
• Walls plates are introduced at the springing supporting the
arch set.
• Side is widened
American Method
• In this method, a drift is driven into the top of the tunnel. The drift
is supported by laggings, caps, and two vertical posts.
• The sides of the drift are then widened and additional support is
provided using timber planks and struts.
• The process of widening is continued till it reaches the springing
level. Wall plates are fixed at the springing level, which in turn are
supported by vertical posts.
• The vertical posts now occupy the entire roof level. The posts
supporting the drift can then be removed and tunnelling work
continued further in a similar manner.
English Method
• This method is similar to the American method except that the roof
load is supported by underpinning instead of using vertical posts.
• English Method Involves Use of a lot of timber and frequent
shifting for heavy timber logs back and forth is greatest
disadvantage of this method.
• The Main characteristic of this method is excavation of full section
of the tunnel at once using longitudinal strutting and alternate of
masonry work and excavation.
MERITS & DEMERITS
Liner plate method
• In the linear plate method timber is replaced by standard size pressed
steel plates. The use of pressed steel plates is a recent development.
The method has the following advantages:
• The linear plates are light and can be handled easily.
• The number of joints is less, as the linear plates are bigger in
size, and as such the maintenance cost is low.
• The steel plates are fireproof and can be safely used while
working in compressed air condition.
• The necessary work can be done by semi-skilled staff.
• There is considerable saving in terms of the excavation and
concrete required.
Tunnelling for water-bearing
strata
Tunnel Shielding
• A protective structure used in the excavation of tunnels through soil that
is too soft or fluid to remain stable during the time it takes to line the
tunnel
• Developed by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel to excavate the Thames Tunnel
beginning in 1825
• Types of Shield Tunneling
• Manual
• Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
• Front end: Rotating cutting wheel
• Middle portion: Soil dispensing mechanism via slurry
• Rear portion: Precast concrete sections placement mechanism
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
A tunnel boring machine (TBM) consist of 1 or 2 shields (Large
metal cylinders).At the end of the shield, a cutting wheel is
attached. Behind the cutting wheel, there is a chamber and
inside it there is a set of hydraulic jacks which push the TBM
forward. Behind the shield, ie at the finished part of the tunnel
several support mechanisms such as control rooms, rails for
dirt removal, slurry pipelines etc., can be set up.
TBM
• The cutting wheel usually rotate at a speed between 1rpm
and 10rpm. The rotation speed is determined by engineers
depending upon the geology and diameter of the tunnel.The
mud formed while drilling is removed either by making it a
slurry and then through pipelines or by using a conveyer belt
or rail system. Many disadvantages of D&B system of tunnel
boring(Drill & Blast) can be avoided by using a TBM.
Compressed Air Method
This method is possibly the most modern method of tunnelling. The
compressed air, which has a pressure of about 1 kg/cm2, is forced into
the enclosed space within the tunnel so that the sides and top of the
tunnel do not collapse and remain in their position.

The equipment for tunnelling consists of a bulk head, which is an

airtight diaphragm with an airlock. The airlock is an airtight
cylindrical steel chamber with a door at each end opening inwards.
Drill and Blast Method for Rock Tunneling
This method is suitable in medium to strong rock. By jack hammers, blast
holes are drilled on the tunnel face. Explosives are loaded in the blast holes
and then blasting is taken place. R.C. tunnel lining can be cast by using
travelling formwork, or more often, the tunnel lining is formed by sprayed
concrete.
Open Cut
Open cut method often refers to
excavation with battered sides such that no
lateral support is required. In its simplest
form, a trench is excavated, the tunnel
structure is built, the trench is backfilled
and the surface is restored.

Precast tunnel units can also be employed

to speed up to construction process. The
major problem of this method is the
procession of land so that it is not too
suitable in urban areas. Moreover, it is
only suitable for shallow tunnels only
because with increased depth, direct costs
of trench excavation and backfilling
increase rapidly.
Cut and Cover Method
The construction process of cut and cover method is very similar to that of
open cut method except that the excavation sides are vertical and temporary
supported are provided. The main problems associated with cut and cover
method are the stability of the soft ground, impact on the existing
underground services & utilities and traffic disruption in urban areas.
Tunnel Shielding
• A protective structure used in the excavation of tunnels through soil that
is too soft or fluid to remain stable during the time it takes to line the
tunnel
• Developed by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel to excavate the Thames Tunnel
beginning in 1825
• Types of Shield Tunneling
• Manual
• Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
• Front end: Rotating cutting wheel
• Middle portion: Soil dispensing mechanism via slurry
• Rear portion: Precast concrete sections placement mechanism
TUNNELING IN HARD ROCKS
• Tunneling Methods
• Heating and quenching (old technique)
• Drilling
• à Percussion drills (penetrate rock by impact action alone)
• à Rotary drills (cut by turning a bit under pressure against the rock
face)
• à Rotary-Percussion drills (combine rotary and percussion action)
• Blasting
• à Primary blasting vs Secondary blasting
• à Explosives
• Dynamite (expensive)
• Ammonium Nitrate (cheaper but not good in water logged areas)
• Slurries (mixture of explosives, gel and water)
• Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)