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 C#
FOR BEGINNERS
CRASH COURSE

Master C# Programming
Fast and Easy Today

By
RAJ ALI
© Copyright 2014 - All rights reserved.

In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document in

either electronic means or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly
prohibited and any storage of this document is not allowed unless with written
permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

The information provided herein is stated to be truthful and consistent, in that any
liability, in terms of inattention or otherwise, by any usage or abuse of any policies,
processes, or directions contained within is the solitary and utter responsibility of the
recipient reader. Under no circumstances will any legal responsibility or blame be held
against the publisher for any reparation, damages, or monetary loss due to the
information herein, either directly or indirectly.
Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.

Legal Notice:
This book is copyright protected. This is only for personal use. You cannot amend,
distribute, sell, use, quote or paraphrase any part or the content within this book without
the consent of the author or copyright owner. Legal action will be pursued if this is
breached.

Disclaimer Notice:
Please note the information contained within this document is for educational and
entertainment purposes only. Every attempt has been made to provide accurate, up to
date and reliable complete information. No warranties of any kind are expressed or
implied. Readers acknowledge that the author is not engaging in the rendering of legal,
financial, medical or professional advice.

By reading this document, the reader agrees that under no circumstances are we
responsible for any losses, direct or indirect, which are incurred as a result of the use of
information contained within this document, including, but not limited to, —errors,
omissions, or inaccuracies.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to C#
1.1 Overview of C#
1.2 Programming features of C#
1.3 C# Environment
Components of .NET framework
Chapter 2 Program Structure in C#
2.1 Introduction to C# Program structure
Namespace declaration
Class
Class Methods
Comments
2.2 User Interface elements
Start Page
Standard Toolbar
Solution Explorer
Output window
Error List
Class View Window
Code Editor
2.3 Compiling and executing C# program
Chapter 3 Syntax, Data Types, and conversion
3.1 Different keywords in C#
1) Keywords for class, method, field and property
2) Keywords for type conversions
3) Keywords useful for program flow control
4) Keywords used for built in types and enumerations
5) Keywords used for exception handling
6) Keywords used as literals, method passing parameters
7) Keywords useful in function pointers, object allocation, unmanaged
code
3.2 Data Types in C#
 3.3 Type conversion in C#
Implicit type conversion
Explicit type conversion
Chapter 4 Variables and Constants
4.1 Exploring variables in C#
4.2 Constants and literals in C#
Chapter 5 Operators in C#
5.1 Introduction to operators
5.2 Arithmetic operators
5.3 Relational operators
5.4 Logical operators
5.5 Bitwise operators
5.6 Assignment operators
5.7 Miscellaneous operators
Chapter 6 C# Decision making statements
6.1 If Statement
6.2 If else statement
6.3 Nested if statement
6.4 Switch statement
6.5 Nested switch statement
Chapter 7 Loops in C#
7.1 While loop
7.2 For loop
7.3 Do while loop
7.4 Break statement
7.5 Continue statement
Chapter 8 Classes and Methods in C#
8.1 Class declaration
C# constructors
C# destructors
8.2 Defining methods
8.3 Calling methods
8.5 Recursive method call
8.4 Passing parameters to method
Chapter 9 Arrays in C#
9.1 Introduction to arrays
9.2 Arrays declaration
9.3 Initializing and adding values
9.4 Accessing array elements
9.5 Foreach loop
9.6 Different C# arrays
Chapter 10 Strings in C#
10.1 Creation of string
10.2 Properties and methods of string class
10.3 Examples demonstrating the string functionality
Chapter 11 Encapsulation and Polymorphism
11.1 Introduction to encapsulation
11.2 Access specifier in C#
11.3 Polymorphism
11.4 Static Polymorphism
11.5 Dynamic Polymorphism
Chapter 12 Inheritance and Interfaces
12.1 Introduction to Inheritance
12.2 Base and derived classes
12.3 Base class initialization
12.4 Interfaces in C#
12.5 Multiple inheritance in C#
Chapter 13 Operator overloading and exception handling
13.1 Introduction to Operator Overloading
13.2 Different operators in overloading
13.3 Introduction to exception handling
13.4 Exception classes in C#
13.5 Exception handling
13.6 User defined exceptions
Chapter 14 Multithreading
14.1 Thread in C#
14.2 Life cycle of a thread
14.3 Main thread
 14.4 Properties and methods of the Thread class
14.5 Creating and managing threads
14.6 Destroying threads
Reference links on C#
Conclusion
Chapter 1 Introduction to C#
1.1 Overview of C#
C# is an object oriented, type safe high level programming language. It has been
developed by Microsoft during the development of the .NET framework. C# was
developed for the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI), this infrastructure was
created to allow programs from various other high level languages to work together
without the need to rewrite those programs entirely. The CLI contains a various
executable programs referred simply as executables and are housed and ran in a system
called the runtime environment.

All the programs created in .Net framework execute in an environment that handles the
runtime requirements. The Common Language Runtime (CLR) provides the virtual
machine, which helps the programmers not to consider the CPU specifications. The
class library and CLR make the .NET framework.
1.2 Programming features of C#
It is simple, advanced, object oriented language
It contains data types and classes common for all the .NET languages
The Common Language Runtime (CLR) is similar to the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM)
C# provides support for encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and
interfaces
Visual Studio provides support to VC++, Visual Basic, Vbscript, and Jscript
.NET consists of class library and common execution engine
Garbage collection, automatic memory management, interoperability are inbuilt
in C#
User can develop console, windows and web applications using C#
1.3 C# Environment
C# is a part of .NET framework. It is used for creating .NET applications. Using .NET
framework, user can design, deploy and develop the applications. Robust applications
can be easily built using the simple programming model.
Components of .NET framework

The .NET framework diagram containing several components is as shown:

The .NET framework consists of the following components:

Common Language Runtime

.NET framework base class library
Common Language Specification
User and Program interfaces

Common Language Runtime (CLR)

The core component of the .NET framework is the CLR. It is an environment where the
programs are executed. The code in CLR is translated into Intermediate Language (IL).
This IL code is then used across different platforms.

The IL code is converted into machine language by the Just in Time (JIT) compiler. The
complier checks for the type safety. This ensures objects are accessed in a compatible
way.
.NET framework class library

The class library works with any .NET languages like VB.NET, VC# and VC++.NET.
The library provides classes used in the code for performing different programming
tasks like data collection, string management, file access and connecting to the database.

Common Language Specification

CLR contains set of common rules used by all the programming languages in .NET
framework. They are known Common Language Specification (CLS). CLS helps an
object to interact with objects or applications of other languages.

User and Program Interfaces

.NET framework provides three different types of user interfaces:-

Windows Forms: They are windows based applications.

Web Forms: They are used for creating web based applications.
Console Applications: They are useful for creating console based
applications which are executed by the command line.
Chapter 2 Program Structure in C#
2.1 Introduction to C# Program structure
C# Program consists of various parts. We shall explore all the components needed for a
C# program.

Consider the code demonstrating the C# program.

Example 1:

using System;
namespace welcome
public class WelcomeUser
{
static void Main( string[] args)
{
Console.WriteLine("WelcomeUser");
Console.Read();
}
}

The code consists of several parts. They are as mentioned below:

Namespace declaration

The namespace consists of collection of classes used in programming. The using

keyword is used for adding the System namespace. The System class consists of classes
and methods useful for the user.

In the above code, namespace welcome is added.

Class

The class consists of data and method definitions used by the program. The class can
have one or many methods. Every class must have a Main method, which is the first
method run in the code. In the above code, WelcomeUser class is declared.
Class Methods

Methods in a class specify the behavior of the statement. In the above code, WriteLine
method is used for writing the value in the console. It is defined in the Console class
inside the System namespace.

The Read method of the Console class is used for waiting till the user hits a key. Thus
prevents the screen from closing too quickly.
Comments

Comments are text useful for providing additional information about the code. The
compiler ignores any code that is placed inside a comment block. There are two types
of comments; one comment is used for single line entries and the other for multi line
entries.

For example:
Example 2:

using System;
namespace comment
/*It is a simple code
Used for writing value to the console
*/
class Demo
{
static void Main()
{
//It is added inside Main method
Console.WriteLine("Demonstration of code");
}
}
2.2 User Interface elements
There are various user interface elements present in the Visual Studio application that
can be used in a project. We shall explore the user interface elements in detail.
Start Page

The Start Page is the initial page that gets displayed when the user opens the Microsoft
Visual Studio application.

The Visual Studio IDE provides the start page as the default home page. Through the
start page user can specify the preferences, developer communication using the .NET
platform, exploring new .NET features.

In Visual Studio .NET, the Projects tab displays the recent projects and the latest
modification date. User can use any of the existing projects from the list. Click on the
New Project button when you need to work for a new project. Click on the Open project
button when user wants to open the existing project.
Standard Toolbar

The standard toolbar is used to provide the shortcut menu commands. There are several
buttons on the toolbar that help user to perform tasks related to opening, closing, saving,
editing, pasting on the file.

There are functions related to the tools present in the standard toolbar. They are as
listed below.
New Project: A new project can be created in the application. The button is
used.
Add New Item: A new item is added to the project. The button is used
 Save: All the programs created in a particular solution are saved. The button
is used
Save All: It saves all the unsaved items in an application. The button is used

Cut: The selected objects are placed on the clipboard using this option. The
icon is used
Copy: The copy of the selected item is kept on the clipboard. The icon is
used
Paste: It is used to paste the contents in the document. The icon is used
Debugging: The compilation and execution of the project is done. The icon is
used.
Solution Explorer
In the solution explorer window, classes, project and solution name used in the project
gets displayed. Double click the file in the solution explorer for opening the file.

The following figure shows the solution explorer window in application.

Output window

The messages for the status of the features of Visual Studio .NET IDE are provided by
the output window. The current status of the application is displayed when the user
compiles it. The number of errors present during compilation is displayed in the
window. The View -> Output Window option is used to open the window.

The following figure shows the output window in Visual Studio application.
Error List

The list of errors present in the application is displayed in the error list window. The
user can locate errors as soon as the code is compiled. Double click the error and the
source for it is located. Click View, Error List Window option to open the error list
window.

The following figure shows the error list window.

Class View Window

The class view window is useful in displaying classes, properties and methods
associated with a file. The tree view structure is used to display the items. The code
editor window can be viewed by double clicking the item.

The window contains two buttons, one for sorting the items, other for new folder
creation. The View, Class View option is used for opening the class view window.
Code Editor

User can enter or edit code in the code editor. User can add code to the editor for the
class.

The following window shows the code editor.

2.3 Compiling and executing C# program
There are some steps involved in compiling and executing the program as mentioned
below:

1) Open Visual Studio application

2) Click File, New, Project option from the list
3) Select the Visual C# template and select Windows option
4) Select the console application template from the template list
5) Add a project name and click OK button
6) A new project is created in the solution explorer window
7) Add the needed code in the code editor window
8) Press F5 or click the Run button for project execution. User can view the
output for the code

The compiling of the code of C# program using the command line of the Visual Studio
IDE is possible.

1) Add the code in the text editor and save the file with .cs extension
2) Open the command prompt and navigate to the file
3) The csc filename.cs and compile the code
4) The command prompt moves to the next line and creates an executable file
5) Add the filename and execute the program
Chapter 3 Syntax, Data Types, and conversion
3.1 Different keywords in C#
Keywords are special predefined reserved words and are each assigned with a unique
meaning. These keywords can be organized in to categories useful for better
understanding. Below is a list of keywords categorized into different types.
1) Keywords for class, method, field and property

abstract
extern
internal
new
const
override
protected
private
public
sealed
readonly
static
virtual
void
2) Keywords for type conversions

explicit
implicit
as
is
operator
sizeof
typeof
3) Keywords useful for program flow control

if
 else
for
foreach
in
case
break
continue
return
while
goto
default
do
switch
4) Keywords used for built in types and enumerations

bool
char
class
byte
decimal
enum
double
float
interface
long
int
object
sbyte
short
string
uint
struct
ulong
ushort
5) Keywords used for exception handling

try
catch
 throw
finally
checked
unchecked
6) Keywords used as literals, method passing parameters

true
false
null
this
value
out
params
ref

7) Keywords useful in function pointers, object allocation,

unmanaged code

delegate
event
new
stackalloc
unsafe
3.2 Data Types in C#
Data types are used to store the data in a specific type. There are several built in data
types that are used by the programmers for declaring data.

Every data type has a limited set of options it can be, these limited number of options
are called the data range for the data type. Listed below are the different data types
present and the data range that they can be:

bool: Used to represent the Boolean value. The values that can be assigned are true
or false.

byte: 8 – bit unsigned integer. The range of value for a byte data type is from 0 to
255

char: 16 – bit Unicode character. The range of values is from U +0000 to U + ffff

double: 64 – bit double precision floating point type. The range of values is from
(+/-) 5.0 x 10-324 to (+/-) 1.7 x 10308

decimal: 128 bit precise decimal values with significant digits. The range of values
is from ( -7.9 x 1028 to 7.9 x 1028 ) / 100 to 28

float: 32 bit single precision floating point. The range of values is from -3.4 x 1038
to + 3.4 x 1038

int: 32 – bit signed integer type. It has range of values from -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647

long: 64 – bit signed integer type. It has range of values from -

923,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

sbyte: 8 – bit signed integer type. It has range of values from -128 to 127

short: 16 – bit signed integer type. It has range of values from -32,768 to 32,767

unit: 32 – bit unsigned integer type. It has range of values from 0 to 4,294,967,295

ulong: 64 – bit unsigned integer type. It has range of values from 0 to

18,446,744,073,709,551,615

ushort: 16 – bit unsigned integer type. It has range of values from 0 to 65,535
3.3 Type conversion in C#
Type conversion is useful when the programmer needs to convert from one data type to
another. The type conversion is also known as type casting. There are two types of type
casting in C#. They are implicit type conversion and explicit type conversion.
Implicit type conversion

The implicit keyword is used for implicit conversions. They do not need any casting
operator. These conversions include small to large integral type, from derived class to
base class.

Explicit type conversion

The explicit conversions are done explicitly by users through the use of the pre-defined
functions. In these conversions, a cast operator is needed.

Example 3:

using System;
namespace TypeConversion
{
class Conversion
{
static void Main(string[ ] args)
{
double d=10.243;
int i;

i = int (d);
Console.WriteLine(i);
Console.Read();
}
}
}

C# consists of type conversion methods that are useful for users.

The following list shows the type conversion methods.

 ToByte: Used for converting a type to byte
ToBoolean: Used for converting Boolean value
ToDateTime: Used for converting a type to the date time type
ToDouble: Converts a type to double
ToDecimal: Converts the floating point or integer to decimal type
ToInt64: Converts the a type to 64 bit integer
ToSingle: Converts the type to floating point number
ToString: Converts the type to string type
ToUInt64: Converts a type to an unsigned big integer

The following code snippet shows the conversion of value type to Double type.

Example 4:

using System;
namespace type
{
class DoubleConversion
{
int a=10;
float f=30.05f;
bool b=false;

Console.WriteLine(a.ToDouble());
Console.WriteLine(f.ToDouble());
Console.WriteLine(b.ToDouble());
Console.Read();
}
}
Chapter 4 Variables and Constants
4.1 Exploring variables in C#
A variable is name assigned to the memory location used by the programs. Every
variable has a data type associated with it. The data type determines the size of the
variable’s memory used for storing within the memory.

The data types provided by C# are distinguished as:

1. Integral types: int, unit, short, byte, sbyte, long, ulong, and char
2. Floating point types: double, float
3. Decimal types: decimal
4. Boolean type: true or false values
5. Nullable type: nullable data type
6. Reference type: class

Defining Variables

The syntax for declaring the variables is:

<data_type> <variable_list>;

Where, data_type is a valid C# data type. It can be int, char, float, double, or a user
defined type. The variable_list contains one or more identifiers.

Examples of variables

int a,b,c;
char x,y;
float price, totolcost;
double area;

Initializing Variables

The variables are initialized using an equal sign and followed by an expression. The
syntax for initializing variable is:
 variable_name = value;

The variables can be initialized in the declaration. The general form for initializing the
variable is:

<data_type> <variable_name> = value;

Examples of variable initialization are:

int a = 4;
char z=’z’;
double y = 12.145;

Example for demonstrating variable types:

Example 5:

using System;
namespace VariableDeclare
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
int a;
short s;
double d;

/*initializing variables*/
a=20;
s=5;
d=a+s;
Console.WriteLine("a={0},b={1},d={2}",a,s,d);
Console.Read();

}
}

Accepting values from user

The Console class present in the System namespace provides ReadLine() function.
The function is used for accepting input from the user and stored into variable.

Example:

int no;
no=Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());

The Convert.ToInt32() function converts the data entered by the user to integer data
type. The function accepts the data in string format.

LValue and RValue Expressions

The two types of expressions in C# are:

lvalue: The expression is an lvalue appears on the left side of the assignment.
rvalue: The expression is an rvalue that appears on the right side but not on the
left side of the assignment.

The variables are lvalues and hence appear on the left side of the assignment. The
numeric values are rvalues and hence appear on the right side.

int a=50;
4.2 Constants and literals in C#
Constant is a class member that represents a fixed value. Constant value can be
computed at compile time but cannot be modified. Constants are declared using the
const keyword.

Syntax:

const<data_type> <constant_name> = value;

Example of Constant:

Example 6:

using System;
namespace constc
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
const int i=3;
int x;
Console.WriteLine("The value for x is");
x=Convert.ToInt(Console.ReadLine());
int mult = x*i;
Console.WriteLine("Value of multiplication is:{0}",mult);
Console.ReadLine();
}
}

Literals

A literal is a source code representation of a value. There are different types of literals
in C#.

Integer Literals

Integer literal is used to write values of type int, long, unit, and ulong. It can be
represented as decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. The base or radix is specified
by the prefix. The value 0x or 0X represents the hexadecimal, 0 defines octal and
decimal is used without prefix.

Some of the examples of integer literals are 15, 0321, 0x5b, 30l.

Floating point literals

Floating point literal consist of integer part, fraction part, decimal part, and an exponent
part. The floating point literals can be represented in exponent or decimal form.

Floating point literals can be mentioned as 3.1415, 1423E-6L.

Character Literals

Character literals represent a single character. They are enclosed in single quotes.
Characters that are preceded with a backslash are called escape characters and some
of these escape characters have special meanings when used in a string to designate a
special function such as creating a tab or a carriage return. Below is a list of some of
these special escape characters:

\’ A single quote
\” Double quote
\\ Backslash
\0 null
\a Alert
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\r Carriage return

String Literals

There are two string literals types supported by C#: regular string literals and
verbatim string literals. Regular string literals contain zero or more characters
enclosed in double quotes.

A verbatim string literals contains @ character followed by a double quote character,

zero or more character. A verbatim string literal can span multiple lines.

Examples showing string literals.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 r 105 ) LXXXVI. Carrying to and fro. Vectura. The Coach-
man, i. joineth a Horse fit to match a Saddle-horse, 2, 3. to the
Coach-tree, with Thongs or Chains, 5. hanging down from the Collar,
4. Then he sitteth upon the Saddle-horse, and driveth them that go
before him, 6. with a Whip, 7. and guideth them with a String, 8 He
greaseth the Axle-tree with Axle-tree grease out of a Grease-pot, g.
and stoppeth the wheel with a Trigen, 10. Auriga, 1. jungit
Parippum, 2. Sellario, 3. ad Temonem, Loris vel Catenis, 5.
dependentibus de Helcio, 4. Deinde insidet Sellario, agit ante se
antecessores,6. Scuticd, 7. & fiectit Funibus, 8. Ungit Axem Axungid,
ex »(3!j« unguentorio, 9. & inhibet rotam SufBamine, 10.
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along the Wheelruts, II. Great Persons 2iTC carry ed with six Horses,
1 2. by two Coachmen, in a Hanging-wagon, which is called a Coach,
13 Others with two Horses, 14. in a Chariot, 15. Horse Liiters, 16,
17. are carried by two Horses. They use J'ack- Horses, instead of
Waggons, thorow Hills that are not passable, 18. in praecipiti
descensu. Et sic aurigatur per Orbitas, 11. Magnates vehuntur
Sejugibus, iz. duobus Rhedariis, Curru pensili, qui vocatur
Carpentum (Pilentum), 13. Alii Bijugibus, 14. Essedo, 1 5 . Arcerce,
16. %iLacticce, 17. portantur ^ duobus Equis. Utuntur Jumentis
Clitellariis, loco Curruum, per monies invios, 18. Lxxxvn. Passing over
Waters. Transitus Aquariim Lest he that is to pass | Trajecturus
ilumen ne over a River should be wet, | madefiat,
 ( ^o^ ) Bridges, i. were invented for Carriages, and Foot-
bridges, z. for Foot- men. If a river have a Foord, 3. it is waded over,
4. Flotes, 5. also are made of Timber pinned together; or Ferry-
boats, 6. of planks laid close together for fear they should receive
Water. Besides Scullers, 7. are made, which are rowed with an Oar,
8. or Pole, 9. or haled with an Haling-rope, 10. Pontes, I. excogitati
sunt pro Vehiculis & Ponticuli, 2. pro Peditibus. Si Flumen habet
Vadum, 3. vadatur, 4. Rates,^. etiam struuntur ex compactis tignis;
vel Pontonei, 6. ex trabibus consolidatis, ne excipiant aquam. Porrd
Lintres (Lembi), 7. fabricantur, qui aguntur Remo, 8. vel Canto, 9.
aut trahuntur Remulco, 10. Swimming. LXXXVIII. Natatus. Men are
wont also to swim over Waters Solent etiam tranare aquas
 r 'o8 J upon a bundle of flags, i. and besides upon blown
Beast-bladders, z. and after, by throwing their Hands and Feet, ■\.
abroad. And at last they learned to tread the water, 4. being plunged
up to the girdle-stead, and carrying their Cloaths upon their head. A
Diver, 5. can swim also under the water like a Fish. super scirpeum
/ascent, i. porrd super inilatas bourn Vesicas, 2. deinde libere jactatu
Manuum Pedumque, 3. Tandern didicerunt calcare aquam, 4.
immersi cingulo tenus & gestantes Vestes supra caput. Urinator, 5.
etiam natare potest sub aqui, ut Piscis. A Galley. LXXXIX. Navis
actuaria. A Ship furnished •with Oars, i. is a Barge, 2. or a Foyst, &c.
in which the Rowers, 3. Ahi:')s instructa Rends, 1 . est Uniremis, 2.
vel Biremis, &c. in qud Remiges, 3.
 ( ^°9) sitting on Seats, 4. by the Oar-rings, row, by striking
the water with the Oars, 5. The Ship-master, 6. standing in the Fore-
castle, and the Steers-man, 7. sitting at the Stern, and holding the
Rudder, 8. steer the Vessel. considentes pre Transtra, 4. ad Scalmos,
remigant pellendo aquan> Remis, Proreta, 6. stans in Prora, &
Gubernator, 7. sedens in Puppi, tenensque Clavum, 8.
^uhemaLTXiNavigiu/fi. A Merchant-ship. XC. Navis oneraria. A Ship,
I. is driven onward not by Oars, but by the only force of the Winds.
In it is a Mast, 2. set up, fastened with Shrowds, 3. on all sides to
the mainchains. Navigium, i. impellitur, non remis, sed sold vi
Ventorum. In illo Mains, z. erigitur, firmatus Funibus, 3. undiquead
OraslNavis,
 r no; to which the Sail-yards, 4. are tied, and the Sat'is,^.
to these, which are spread open, 6. to the wind, and are hoysed by
Bowlings, 7. The Sails are the Main-sail, 8. the Trinket, or Fore-sail,
9. the Misen-sail or Poopsail, 10. The Beak, 1 1 . is in the Fore-deck.
The Ancient, 12. is placed in the Stern. On the Mast is the Foretop,
13. the Watch-tower oixSxz'&Yiv^ and over the Fore-top a Vane, 14.
to shew which way the Wind standeth. The ship is stayed with an
Anchor, 15. The depth is fathomed with a Plummet, 16. Passengers
walk up and down the Decks, 17. The Sea men run to and fro
through the Hatches,!?,. And thus, even Seas are passed over. cui
annectuntur y4;;/f««
 Ship-wreck Naufragium, When a Storm, i . ariseth on a
sudden, they strike Sail, 2. lest the Ship should be dashed against
Rocks, 3 or light upon Shelves, 4. If they can not hinder her they
suflFer Ship-wreck, 5. And then the men, the Wares, and all things
are miserably lost. Nor doth the Sheat-anthor, 6. being cast with a
Cable, do any good'. Some escape, either on a Plank, 7. and by
swimming, or in the Boat, 8. Part of the Wares, with the dead folks,
is carried out of the Sea, 9, oupn the Shears. Cum Procella, 1. oritur
repent^ contrahunt Vela, 2. ne Navis ad Scopulos, 3. allidatur, aut
incidat in Brevia (Syrtes), 4. Si non possunt prohibere patiuntur
Naufragium, 5. Turn Homines, Merces, omnia miserabiliter pereunt.
Neque hie Sacra anchor a, 6. Rudenti jacta quidquam adjuvat.
Quidam evadunt, vel tabula, 7. ac enatando, vel Scapha, 8. Pars
Mercium cum mortuis a Mart, 9. in littora defertur.
 Writing. Ars Scriptoria.The Ancients writ in Tables done over
with wax with a brazen Foitrel, i . with the sharp end, z. whereof
letters were engraven and rubbed out again with thf^ broad end, 3.
Afterwards they writ Letters with a small Reed, 4. We use a Goose-
quill, 5. the Stem, 6. of which we make with a Pen-knife, 7. then we
dip the Neb in an Ink-horn, 8. which is stopped with a Stopple, 9.
and we put our Pens, into a Pennar, 10. We dry a Writing Veteres
scribebant in Tabellis ceratis aeneo Stilo, 1. CM jus parte cuspidata,
2. exarabantur literae, rursum vero obliterabantur plana. Deinde
Literas pingebant subtili Calamo, 4. Nos Vi\.\muT Anserina Penna, 5.
cujus Caulem, 6. temperamus Scalpello, 7. turn intingimus Crenam in
Atratnentario, 8. quod obstruitur Operculo, 9. & Pennas rerondimus
in Calamario, 10. Siccamus Scripturam
 ( "3 J with Blotting-paper, or Calis-sand out of a Sand-box, \
i . And we indeed write from the left hand towards the right, 12. the
Hebrews from the right hand towards the left, 13. the Chinese and
other Indians, from the top downwards, 14. Chartd bibuld, vel Arend
scriptoria, ex Theca Pulveraria, 11. Et nos quidem scribimus d
sinistra dextrorsum, 12. HebrcBi 4 dextr4 sinistrorsum, 13.
Chinenses & Indi alii, d summo deorsum, 14. Paper. XCIIl. Papyrus.
The Ancients used Beech-Boards, 1. or Leaves, 2. as also Barks, 3.
of 7Vtf« y especially of an Egyptian Shrub, which was called
Papyrus. Now Paper is in use which the Paper-maker 3 Veteres
utebantur Tabu/is Faginis, i. aut Foliis, 2. ut & Libris, 3. Arborum ;
praesertim Arbusculae ^Egyptiae, cui nomen erat Papyrus. Nunc
Charta est in usu, quam Chattopoeus
 r 'h; maketh in a Paper-mill, 4. of Linen rags, 5. stamped to
Mash, 6. which being taken up in Frames, 7. he spreadeth into
Sheets, 8. and setteth them in the Air that they may be dryed.
Twenty-five of these make a Quire, 9. twenty Quires a Ream, 10.
and ten of these a Bale of Paper, 1 1 . That which is to last long is
written on Parchment, 12. in mola Papyracea,a,. conficit k Linteis
vetustis, 5. in Pulmentum contusis, 6. quod haustum Normulis, 7.
diducit in Plagulas, 8. exponitque aeri, ut siccentur. Harum XXV.
faciunt Scapum, 9. XX. Scapi Volumen minus, 10. horum X. Volumen
majus, 11. Duraturum diu scribitur in Membrana, 12. Printing. XCIV.
Typographia. The Printer hath metal Letters in a large number put
into Boxes, 5. The Compositor, 1. Typographus habet Typos Metallos,
magno numero distributos per Loculamenta,$. Typotheta, i.
 r "s; taketh them out one by one and according to the
Copy, (which he hath fastened before him in a Visorum, z.)
■composeth words in a Composing-stick, 3. till a Line be made ; he
putteth these in a Gaily, -4. till a Page, 6. be made, and these again
in a. Form, 7. and he locketh them up in Iron Chases, 8. with Coyns,
9. lest they should drop out, and putteth them under the Press, i o.
Then the Press-man beateth it over with Printers Ink, by means of
Balls, 1 1. «preadeth upon it the Papers put in the Frisket, 12. which
being put under the Spindle, 14. on the Coffin, 13. and pressed
down with a £ar, 15. he maketh to take impression. eximit illos
singulatim, & secundum exemplar, (quod habet praefixum sibi
Retinaculo, 2.) componit Verba Gnomone, 3. donee versus fiat ; hos
indit Formce, 4. donee Pagina, 6. fiat ; has iterum Tabuld
compositorid, 7. coaretaque eoB Marginibus ferreis, 8. ope
Cochlearum, 9. ne dilabantur, ac subjicit Prelo, 10. Turn Impressor
illinit Atramento itnpressorio ope Pilarum, 1 1 . super imponit
Chartas inditas Operculo, 12. quas subditas Trochlea, 14. in Tigello,
13. & impressas Suculd, 15. facit imbibere typos.
 xcv. The Booksellers Shop. Bibliopolium. ri'^L"m?±" The
Bookseller, i selleth Books in a Booksellers Shop, 2. of which he
writeth a Catalogue, 3. The Books are placed on Shelves, 4. and are
laid open for use upon a Zf^^, 5. A Multitude of Books is called a
Library, 6. Bibliopola, i. vendit Libros in Bibliopolio, 2. quorum
conscribit Catalogum, 3. Libri disponuntur per Repositoria, 4. &
exponuntur ad usum, super Fluteum, 5. Multitudo Librorum vocatur
Bibliotheca, 6.
 The Book-binder. Bibliopegus. In times past they glewed
Paper to Paper, and rolled them up together into one Roll, i. At this
day the Book-binder bindeth Books, whilst he wipeth, 2. over Papers
steept in Gum-wa.ter, and then foldeth them together, 3. beatheth
with a hammer, 4. then stitrheth them up, 5. presseth them in a
Press fi. which hath two Screws, 7. :glueth them on the back,
cutteth off the edges with a round Knife, 8. and at last covereth
them with Parchment or Leather, ■9. maketh them handsome, and
setteth on Clasps, 10. Olim agglutinabant Chartam Chartae,
convolvebantque eas in unum Volumen, i. Hodi^ Compactor
compingit Libros, dum tergit, 2. chartas maceratas agud glutinosd,
deinde complicat, 3. malleat, 4. tum consuit, 5. conprimit Prelo, 6.
quod habet duos Cochleas,j. couglutinat dorso, demarginat rotundo
Cultro, 8. tandem vestit Membrand vel Corio, 9. efformat, & affigit
Uncinulos, 10.
 A Book. XCVII. Liber_ A Book as to its outward shape, is
either in Folio, i. or in Quarto, 2. in Octavo, 3. in Duodecimo, 4.
either made to open Side-wise, 5. or Long-wise, 6. with Brazen
Clasps, 7. or Strings, 8. and Square-bofles, 9. Within are Leaves, 10.
with two Pages, sometimes divided with Columns, n. and Marginal
Notes, 12. Liber, quoad exteriorem formanr. est vel in Folia, 1. vel in
Quarto, 2. in Octavo, 3. in Duodecimo, 4. vel Columnatus, 5. vel
Linguatus, 6. cum yF.neis Clausuris, 7. vel Ligulis, 8. & angularibus
Bullis, 9. Intussunt Folia, 10. duabis Paginis, aliquando Columnis, 11.
divisa cumq; Notis Marginalibus, 12.
 A School. Schola. A School, 1. is a Shop in which Young
Wits are fashion'd to vertue, and it is distinguish'd into Forms. The
Master, 2. sitteth in a Chair, 3. the Scholars, 4. in Forms, 5. he
teacheth, they learn. Some things are writ down before them with
Chalk on a Table, 6. Some sit at a Table, and write, 7. he mendeth
their Faults, 8. Some stand and rehearse things committed to
memory, 9. Some talk together, 10. and behave themselves
wantonly and carelessly ; Schola, 1. est OfBcina, in qui Novelli Animi
formantur ad virtutem, & distinguitur in Classes. FrcEceptor, 2. sedet
in Cathedra, 3. Discipuli, 4. in Subse litis, 5. ille docet, hi discunt.
Quaedam praescribuntur illis Cretd in Tabella, 6. Quidam sedent ad
Mensam, & scribunt, 7. ipse corrigit Mendas, 8. Quidam stant, &
recitant mandata memoriae, 9. Quidam confabulantur> 10. ac
gerunt se petulantes, & negligentes;
 ( I20 ; these are chasiised with a Ferrula. ii. and a Rod. 12.
hi castigantur Feruld (baculo), 11. & Virgd, 12. The Study. XCIX.
Museum. The Study, 1. is a place where a Student, 2. apart from
Men, sitteth alone, addicted to his Studies, whilst he readeth Books,
3. which being within his reach he layeth open upon a Desk, 4. and
picketh all the best things out of them into his own Manual, 5. or
marketh them in them with a Dash, 6. or a little Star, 7. in the Mar
gent. Being to sit up late, Museum, 1. est locus ubi Studiosus, 2.
secretus ab Hominibus,' sedet solus deditus Studiis, dum lectitat
Libros, 3. quos penes se & exponit super Pluteum, 4. & excerpit
optima quaeque ex illis in Manuale suum, 5. notat in illis Liturd, 6.
vel Asterisco, 7. ad Margiem. Lucubraturus,
 (121 J he setteth a Candle, 8. on a Candlestick, 9. which is
snuflFed with Snuffers, 10. before the Candle> he placeth a Screen,
1 1 . which is green, that it may not hurt his eye-sight ; richer
Persons use a Taper, for a Tallow-candle slinketh and smoaketh. A
Letter, 12. is wrapped up, writ upon, 13. and sealed, 14. Going
abroad by night, he maketh use of a Lan.thorn, 15. or a Torch, 16.
elevat Lychnum {Canelam), 8. in Candelabra, 9. qui emungitur
Emunctorio, 10. ante Lynchum collocat Umbraculum, 11. quod viride
est, ne hebetet oculorum acietn ; opulentioresutuntur Cereo nam
Candela sebacea fcetet & fugimat. Epistola, 12. complicatur,
inscribitur, 1 3. & obsignatur, 14. Prodiensnoctu vXxXxxr Lanterna,
15. vel Face, 16. Arts belonging to Speech. Grammar, 1. Artes
Sermones. I Grammatica, 1.
 r 122; is conversant about Z*//if«, 2. of which it maketh
Words,i. and teacheth how to utter, write, 4. put together and part
them rightly. Rhetorick, 5. doth as it were paint, 6. a rude form, 7. of
Speech with Oratory Flourishes, 8. such as are Figures, Elegancies,
Adagies, Apothegms, Sentences, Similies, Hierogylphicks, Gr-c.
Poetry, 9. gathereth these Flowers of Speech, 10. and tieth them as
it were into a little Garland, 11. and so making of Prose a Poem, it
maketh several sorts of Verses and Odes, and is therefore crowned
with a Laurel, 12. Musick, 13. setteth Tunes, 14. with pricks, to
which it setteth words, and so singeth alone, or in Consort, or by
Voice, or Musical Instruments, 15. versatur circa Literas, 2. ex quibus
componit Voces,, verba, 3. docetqueeloqui, scribere, 4. construere,
distinguere (interpungere) eas recte. Rhetorica, 5. pingit, 6. quasi
rudem formam, 7. Sermon is Oratoriis Pig mentis, 8. ut sunt
Figurce,EleganticB, Adagia (proverbia) Apothegmata, Sententice
(Gnomae) Similia, Hieroglyphica, (s'c. Poesis, 9. colligit hds Flores
Orationis, i o. & colligat quasi in Co rail am, ii. atque ita, faciens k
prosa ligatam orationem, componi varia Carmina & Hymnos (Odas^
ac propterea coronatur Lauru, 12. Musica, \ 3. componit Melodias,
14. Notis, quibus aptat verba, atque ita cantat sola vel Concent u
(Symphonia), aut voce aut Instrumentis Musicis, 15..
 Musical Instruments. CI. Instrumenta miisica1 Musical
Instruments are those which make a sound: First, when they are
beaten upon, as a Cymbal, i. with a Pestil, a little Bell, 2. with an
Iron pellet within ; or Rattle, 3. by tossing it about: a Jews-Trump, 4.
being put to the mouth, with the fingers; a Drum, 5 . and a Kettle, 6.
with a Drum-stick, 7. as also the Dulcimer, 8. with the Shepherds-
harp, 9. and the Tymbrel, 10. Secondly, upon which strings are
stretched,and struck upon, as the Psaltery, 11. Musica instrumenta
sunt quae edunt vocem : Primo, cum pulsantur, ut Cymbalum, 1.
Pistillo, TintinTiabulum, z. intus Globulo ferreo, Crepitaculum, 3.
circumversando ; Crembalum, 4. ori admotum, Digito ; Tympanum,
5. & Ahenum, 6. Claviculd, 7. ut & Sambuca, 8. cum Organo
pastoritio, 9. & Sistrum (Crotalum), 10. Secundo, in quibus Chordm
intenduntur & plectuntur ut Nablium, 1 1 .
 ( ^H ) and the Virginals, 12. with both hands; the Lute, 13.
(in which is the Neck, 14. the Belly, 15, the Pegs, 16. by which the
Strings, 17. are stretched upon the Bridge, 18.) the Cittern, 19. with
the right hand only, the Vial, 20. with a Bow, 21, and the Harp, 23.
with a Wheel within, which is turned about: the Stops, 22. in every
one are touched with the left hand. At last, those which are blown,
as with the mouth, the Flute, 24. the Shawm, 25. the Bag-pipe, 26.
the Cornet, 27. the Trumpet, 28, 29. or with Bellows, as z. pair of
Organs, 30. cum Clavircordio, 12. utrdque manu ; Testudo (Chelys),
13. (in quA 'jpugum, 14. Magadium, 15. & Verticilli, 16. quibus Nervi,
17. intenduntur super Ponticulam, 18.) & Cythara, ig. Dexterd
tantum, Pandura, 20. Plectro, 21. & Lyra, 23. intus rotd, quae
versatur : Dimensiones, 22. in singulis tanguntur sinistra. Tandem
quae inflantur, ut Ore, Fistula {Tibia), 24. Gingras, 25. Tibia
utricularis, 26. Lituus, 27. Tuba, 28. Buccina, 29. vel Follibus, ul
Organum pneumaticum, 30.
 Philosophy Philosophia. The Naturalist, i. vieweth all the
works of God in the World. The Supertiaturalist, 2. searches out the
Causes and Effects of things. The Arithmetician, reckoneth numbers,
by adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing; and that either by
Cyphers, 3. on a Slate, or by Counters, 4. upon a Desk. Country
people reckon, 5. ■vixih. figures of tens, X. and figures of five, V. by
twelves, fifteens, and threescores. Physicus, 1. speculatur omnia Dei
Opera in Mundo. Metaphysicus, 2. perscrutatur Causas, & rerum
Effecta. Arithmeticus computat numeros, addendo, subtrahendo,
multiplicando, dividendo;. idque vel Cyphris, 3. in Palimocesto, vel
Calculis, 4. super Abacum. Rustici numerant, 5. Decussibus, X. &
Quincuncibus, V. per Duodenas, QuindenaSy & Sexagenas.
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