UNIT –II

Binary Search Trees: Definition and Operations, AVL Trees: Definition and Operations,Applications.
B Trees: Definition and Operations.

INTRODUCTION
In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children but there is no need to maintain the order
of nodes basing on their values. In a binary tree, the elements are arranged in the order they arrive at the
tree from top to bottom and left to right.

A binary tree has the following time complexities...

1. Search Operation - O(n)

2. Insertion Operation - O(1)
3. Deletion Operation - O(n)

1. BINARY SEARCH TREE

1.1. Definition
To enhance the performance of binary tree, we use a special type of binary tree known as Binary
Search Tree.
Binary search tree mainly focuses on the search operation in a binarytree.
Binary search tree can be defined as follows...

Binary Search Tree is a binary tree in which every node contains only smaller values in its left subtree
and only larger values in its right subtree.

In a binary search tree, all the nodes in the left subtree of any node contains smaller values and all the nodes
in the right subtree of any node contains larger values as shown in the following figure...
Example

The following tree is a Binary Search Tree. In this tree, left subtree of every node containsnodes with
smaller values and right subtree of every node contains larger values.

Every binary search tree is a binary tree but every binary tree need not to be binarysearch tree.

Advantages of using binary search tree

1. Searching become very efficient in a binary search tree since, we get a hint at each step, about
which sub-tree contains the desired element.

2. The binary search tree is considered as efficient data structure in compare to arrays and linked
lists. In searching process, it removes half sub-tree at every step. Searching for an element in a
binary search tree takes o(log2n) time. In worst case, the time it takes to search an element is 0(n).

3. It also speed up the insertion and deletion operations as compare to that in array and linked list.
Example1:

Create the binary search tree using the following data elements.
43, 10, 79, 90, 12, 54, 11, 9, 50
1. Insert 43 into the tree as the root of the tree.

2. Read the next element, if it is lesser than the root node element, insert it as the root ofthe left sub-
tree.

3. Otherwise, insert it as the root of the right of the right sub-tree.

The process of creating BST by using the given elements, is shown in the image below.
1.2.OPERATONS ON A BINARY SEARCH TREE

The following operations are performed on a binary search tree...

1. Search
2. Insertion
3. Deletion

1.2.1.Search Operation in BST

Searching means finding or locating some specific element or node within a data structure. However,
searching for some specific node in binary search tree is pretty easy due to the fact that, element in BST
are stored in a particular order.

1. Compare the element with the root of the tree.

2. If the item is matched then return the location of the node.
3. Otherwise check if item is less than the element present on root, if so then move to theleft sub-
tree.
4. If not, then move to the right sub-tree.
5. Repeat this procedure recursively until match found.
6. If element is not found then return NULL.
Algorithm:

Search (ROOT, ITEM)

o Step 1: IF ROOT -> DATA = ITEM OR ROOT = NULL

Return ROOT
ELSE
IF ROOT < ROOT -> DATA
Return search(ROOT -> LEFT, ITEM)
ELSE
Return search(ROOT -> RIGHT,ITEM)
[END OF IF]
[END OF IF]

o Step 2: END

1.2.2.Insert Operation in BST

Insert function is used to add a new element in a binary search tree at appropriate location. Insert function
is to be designed in such a way that, it must node violate the property of binary search tree at each value.

7. Allocate the memory for tree.

8. Set the data part to the value and set the left and right pointer of tree, point to NULL.
9. If the item to be inserted, will be the first element of the tree, then the left and right ofthis node
will point to NULL.
10. Else, check if the item is less than the root element of the tree, if this is true, thenrecursively
perform this operation with the left of the root.
11. If this is false, then perform this operation recursively with the right sub-tree of theroot.
Algorithm
Insert (TREE, ITEM)

o Step 1: IF TREE = NULL

Allocate memory for TREE
SET TREE -> DATA = ITEM
SET TREE -> LEFT = TREE -> RIGHT = NULL
ELSE
IF ITEM < TREE -> DATA
Insert(TREE -> LEFT, ITEM)
ELSE
Insert(TREE -> RIGHT, ITEM)
[END OF IF][END OF IF]
o Step 2: END
Example
Construct a Binary Search Tree by inserting the following sequence of numbers...
10,12,5,4,20,8,7,15 and 13
Above elements are inserted into a Binary Search Tree as follows...
1.2.3.Delete Operation in BST

Delete function is used to delete the specified node from a binary search tree. However, we must delete a
node from a binary search tree in such a way, that the property of binary search tree doesn't violate.
There are three situations of deleting a node from binary search tree.

a) The node to be deleted is a leaf node

It is the simplest case, in this case, replace the leaf node with the NULL and simple free theallocated
space.
In the following image, we are deleting the node 85, since the node is a leaf node, thereforethe node
will be replaced with NULL and allocated space will be freed.

b) The node to be deleted has only one child.

In this case, replace the node with its child and delete the child node, which now contains the value which
is to be deleted. Simply replace it with the NULL and free the allocated space.

In the following image, the node 12 is to be deleted. It has only one child. The node will be replaced with
its child node and the replaced node 12 (which is now leaf node) will simply bedeleted.
c) The node to be deleted has two children.

It is a bit complexed case compare to other two cases. However, the node which is to be deleted, is
replaced with its in-order successor or predecessor recursively until the node value (to be deleted) is
placed on the leaf of the tree. After the procedure, replace the node with NULL and free the allocated
space.
In the following image, the node 50 is to be deleted which is the root node of the tree. The in- order
traversal of the tree given below.
6, 25, 30, 50, 52, 60, 70, 75.
replace 50 with its in-order successor 52. Now, 50 will be moved to the leaf of the tree, which will simply
be deleted.

Algorithm Delete (TREE, ITEM)

Step1: IFTREE=NULL
Write "item not found in the tree"
ELSE IF
ITEM < TREE -> DATA
Delete(TREE->LEFT,ITEM)
ELSE IF ITEM>TREE->DATA Delete(TREE->RIGHT,ITEM)
ELSE IF TREE->LEFT AND TREE->RIGHT
SET TEMP = findLargestNode(TREE -> LEFT)
SET TREE -> DATA = TEMP -> DATA Delete(TREE -> LEFT, TEMP -> DATA)
ELSE
SET TEMP = TREE
IF TREE -> LEFT = NULL AND TREE -> RIGHT = NULL
SET TREE = NULL
ELSE IF TREE -> LEFT != NULL
SET TREE = TREE -> LEFT
ELSE
SET TREE = TREE -> RIGHT
[END OF IF] FREE TEMP [END OF IF]
Step 2: END
2.AVL TREES
AVL tree is a height-balanced binary search tree. That means, an AVL tree is also a binary search
tree but it is a balanced tree.
A binary tree is said to be balanced if, the difference between the heights of left and right subtrees
of every node in the tree is either -1, 0 or +1. In other words, a binary tree is said to be balanced if the
height of left and right children of every node differ by either -1, 0 or +1. In an AVL tree, every node
maintains an extra information known as balance factor.
The AVL tree was introduced in the year 1962 by G.M.Adelson-Velsky and E.M. Landis.An
AVL tree is defined as follows...

An AVL tree is a balanced binary search tree. In an AVL tree, balance factor of everynode is
either -1, 0 or +1.

Balance factor of a node is the difference between the heights of the left and right subtrees of that node.
The balance factor of a node is calculated either height of left subtree - height of right subtree (OR)
height of right subtree - height of left subtree. In the followingexplanation, we calculate as follows...

Balance factor = heightOfLeftSubtree - heightOfRightSubtree

Example of AVL Tree

The above tree is a binary search tree and every node is satisfying balance factor condition. So this tree is
said to be an AVL tree.
Every AVL Tree is a binary search tree but every Binary Search Tree need not be AVL tree.
2.1.AVL Tree Rotations

In AVL tree, after performing operations like insertion and deletion we need to check the balance
factor of every node in the tree. If every node satisfies the balance factor condition then we conclude the
operation otherwise we must make it balanced. Whenever the tree becomes imbalanced due to any
operation we use rotation operations to make the tree balanced.
 Rotation operations are used to make the tree balanced.

Rotation is the process of moving nodes either to left or to right to make the tree
balanced.

There are four rotations and they are classified into two types.

i) Single Left Rotation (LL Rotation)

In LL Rotation, every node moves one position to left from the current position. To understand LL
Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in AVL Tree...

ii)Single Right Rotation (RR Rotation)

In RR Rotation, every node moves one position to right from the current position. To understand RR
Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in AVL Tree...
 iii)Left Right Rotation (LR Rotation)

The LR Rotation is a sequence of single left rotation followed by a single right rotation. In LR Rotation,
at first, every node moves one position to the left and one position to right from the current position. To
understand LR Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation in AVL Tree...

iv)Right Left Rotation (RL Rotation)

The RL Rotation is sequence of single right rotation followed by single left rotation. In RL Rotation, at
first every node moves one position to right and one position to left from the current position. To
understand RL Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operationin AVL Tree...

2.2.Operations on an AVL Tree

The following operations are performed on AVL tree...

1. Search
2. Insertion
3. Deletion

i) Search Operation in AVL Tree

In an AVL tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. The search operation in
the AVL tree is similar to the search operation in a Binary search tree. We use the following steps to
search an element in AVL tree...

 Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.

 Step 2 - Compare the search element with the value of root node in the tree.
 Step 3 - If both are matched, then display "Given node is found!!!" and terminate thefunction
  Step 4 - If both are not matched, then check whether search element is smaller orlarger than
that node value.
 Step 5 - If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.
 Step 6 - If search element is larger, then continue the search process in right subtree.
 Step 7 - Repeat the same until we find the exact element or until the search element iscompared
with the leaf node.
 Step 8 - If we reach to the node having the value equal to the search value, thendisplay
"Element is found" and terminate the function.
 Step 9 - If we reach to the leaf node and if it is also not matched with the searchelement,
then display "Element is not found" and terminate the function.

ii) Insertion Operation in AVL Tree

In an AVL tree, the insertion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. In AVL Tree, a new
node is always inserted as a leaf node. The insertion operation is performed as follows...

 Step 1 - Insert the new element into the tree using Binary Search Tree insertion logic.
 Step 2 - After insertion, check the Balance Factor of every node.
 Step 3 - If the Balance Factor of every node is 0 or 1 or -1 then go for next operation.
 Step 4 - If the Balance Factor of any node is other than 0 or 1 or -1 then that tree is said to be
imbalanced. In this case, perform suitable Rotation to make it balanced andgo for next operation.
iii) Example: Construct an AVL Tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 8.
iii)Deletion Operation in AVL Tree

The deletion operation in AVL Tree is similar to deletion operation in BST. But after every deletion
operation, we need to check with the Balance Factor condition. If the tree is balanced after deletion go for
next operation otherwise perform suitable rotation to make the tree Balanced.

The two types of rotations are L rotation and R rotation. Here, we will discuss R rotations. L rotations
are the mirror images of them.

If the node which is to be deleted is present in the left sub-tree of the critical node, then L rotation needs
to be applied else if, the node which is to be deleted is present in the right sub- tree of the critical node,
the R rotation will be applied.

Let us consider that, A is the critical node and B is the root node of its left sub-tree. If node X, present in
the right sub-tree of A, is to be deleted, then there can be three different situations:

a) R0 rotation (Node B has balance factor 0 )

If the node B has 0 balance factor, and the balance factor of node A disturbed upon deleting the node X,
then the tree will be rebalanced by rotating tree using R0 rotation.

Example:

Delete the node 30 from the AVL tree shown in the following image.
R1 Rotation (Node B has balance factor 1)

R1 Rotation is to be performed if the balance factor of Node B is 1.

Example

Delete Node 55 from the AVL tree shown in the following image.

Solution :

Deleting 55 from the AVL Tree disturbs the balance factor of the node 50 i.e. node A which becomes the
critical node. This is the condition of R1 rotation in which, the node A will be moved to its right (shown
in the image below). The right of B is now become the left of A(i.e. 45).

The process involved in the solution is shown in the following image.

b) R-1 Rotation (Node B has balance factor -1)

R-1 rotation is to be performed if the node B has balance factor -1. This case is treated in the same way as
LR rotation.
 Example

Delete the node 60 from the AVL tree shown in the following image.

Solution:

in this case, node B has balance factor -1. Deleting the node 60, disturbs the balance factor of the node 50
therefore, it needs to be R-1 rotated. The node C i.e. 45 becomes the root of the tree with the node B(40)
and A(50) as its left and right child.

3.Applications of A VL Trees

AVL trees are applied in th e following situations:

 There are few insertion and deletion operations

 Short search time is needed
 Input data is sorted or nearl y sorted
 AVL trees are mostly used for in-memory sorts of sets and dictionaries.

 AVL trees are also used extensively in database applications in which insertions and
deletions are fewer but there are frequent lookups for data required.

 It is used in applications that require improved searching apart from the database
applications
 AVL tree is a balanced binary search tree which employees rotation to maintain balance.
 It has application in story-line games as well.

 It is use mainly used in corporate sectors where the have to keep the information about the
employees working there and their change in shifts.
AVL tree structures can be used in situations which require fast searching. But, the large cost of re
balancing may limit the usefulness.
4.B Tree
4.1.Introduction
B Tree is a specialized m-way tree that can be widely used for disk access. A B-Tree of order m can have
at most m-1 keys and m children. One of the main reason of using B tree is its capability to store large
number of keys in a single node and large key values by keeping the height of the tree relatively small.

A B tree of order m contains all the properties of an M way tree. In addition, it contains the following
properties.

1. Every node in a B-Tree contains at most m children.

2. Every node in a B-Tree except the root node and the leaf node contain at least m/2children.
3. The root nodes must have at least 2 nodes.
4. All leaf nodes must be at the same level.

It is not necessary that, all the nodes contain the same number of children but, each node must have m/2
number of nodes.

A B tree of order 4 is shown in the following image.

While performing some operations on B Tree, any property of B Tree may violate such as number of
minimum children a node can have. To maintain the properties of B Tree, the tree may split or join.
4.2.Operations of B Trees
1.Searching
2.Insertion
3. Deletion
i) Searching :
Searching in B Trees is similar to that in Binary search tree. For example, if we search for anitem 49 in
the following B Tree. The process will something like following :

1. Compare item 49 with root node 78. since 49 < 78 hence, move to its left sub-tree.
2. Since, 40<49<56, traverse right sub-tree of 40.
3. 49>45, move to right. Compare 49.
4. match found, return.

Searching in a B tree depends upon the height of the tree. The search algorithm takes O(logn) time to
search any element in a B tree.

ii) Inserting

Insertions are done at the leaf node level. The following algorithm needs to be followed inorder to insert
an item into B Tree.

1. Traverse the B Tree in order to find the appropriate leaf node at which the node canbe inserted.
2. If the leaf node contain less than m-1 keys then insert the element in the increasingorder.
3. Else, if the leaf node contains m-1 keys, then follow the following steps.
o Insert the new element in the increasing order of elements.
o Split the node into the two nodes at the median.
o Push the median element upto its parent node.
o If the parent node also contain m-1 number of keys, then split it too byfollowing the same
steps.
Example
Construct a B-Tree of Order 3 by inserting numbers from 1 to 10.
Example 2:

Insert the node 8 into the B Tree of order 5 shown in the following image.
8 will be inserted to the right of 5, therefore insert 8.

The node, now contain 5 keys which is greater than (5 -1 = 4 ) keys. Therefore split the node from the
median i.e. 8 and push it up to its parent node shown as follows.

iii) Deletion

Deletion is also performed at the leaf nodes. The node which is to be deleted can either be a leaf node or
an internal node. Following algorithm needs to be followed in order to delete a node from a B tree.
1. Locate the leaf node.
2. If there are more than m/2 keys in the leaf node then delete the desired key from the node.
3. If the leaf node doesn't contain m/2 keys then complete the keys by taking the element from right
or left sibling.
o If the left sibling contains more than m/2 elements then push its largest element up to its
parent and move the intervening element down to the node where the key is deleted.
o If the right sibling contains more than m/2 elements then push its smallest element up to
the parent and move intervening element down to the node where the key is deleted.
 4. If neither of the sibling contain more than m/2 elements then create a new leaf node by joining
two leaf nodes and the intervening element of the parent node.
5. If parent is left with less than m/2 nodes then, apply the above process on the parent too.

If the the node which is to be deleted is an internal node, then replace the node with its in- order successor or
predecessor. Since, successor or predecessor will always be on the leaf node hence, the process will be
similar as the node is being deleted from the leaf node.
Example 1

Now, let's understand deletion using an example. Consider the following B tree of order 5 with the nodes 5,
12, 32 and 53 to be deleted in the given order.

Since the order of the B tree is 5, the minimum and maximum number of keys in a node is 2 and 4
respectively.

Step 1 - Deleting 5

Since 5 is a key in a leaf node with keys>MIN, this would be Case 1.1. A simple deletion with key shift
would be done. Keys 9 and 10 are shifted left to fill the gap created by the deletion of 5.
Step 2 - Deleting 12

Here, key 12 is to be deleted from node [12,17]. Since this node has only MIN keys, we will try to borrow
from its left sibling [2,9,10] which has more than MIN keys. The parent of these nodes [11,21] contains the
separator key 11. So, the last key of left sibling (10) is moved to the place of the separator key and the
separator key is moved to the underflow node (the node where deletion took place). The resulting tree after
deletion can be found as follows:

Step 3 - Deleting 32

Here, key 32 is to be deleted from node [32, 41]. Since this node has only MIN keys and does not have a left
sibling, we will try to borrow from its right sibling [53, 61, 64] which has more than MIN keys. The parent
of these nodes [51, 67] contains the separator key 51. So, the first key of right sibling (53) is moved to the
place of the separator key and the separator key is moved to the underflow node (the node where deletion
took place). The resulting tree after deletion can be found as follows:
Step 4 - Deleting 53

Here key 53 is to be deleted from node [53, 67] which is a non-leaf node. In such a case, the successor key
(61) will be copied in place of 53 and now the task reduces to deletion of 61 from the leaf node. Since this
node would have less than MIN keys, we check for the left sibling. Since the left sibling has only MIN keys,
we move to the right sibling. The leftmost key of the right sibling (68) moves to the parent node and replaces
the separator (67) while the separator shifts to the underflow node making it [64,67]. The resulting tree after
deletion can be found as follows:
Example 2
Delete the node 53 from the B Tree of order 5 shown in the following figure.

53 is present in the right child of element 49. Delete it.

Now, 57 is the only element which is left in the node, the minimum number of elements that must be
present in a B tree of order 5, is 2. it is less than that, the elements in its left and right sub-tree are also not
sufficient therefore, merge it with the left sibling and intervening element of parent i.e. 49.
The final B tree is shown as follows.
Example 3:
5.Application of B tree

B tree is used to index the data and provides fast access to the actual data stored on the disks
since, the access to value stored in a large database that is stored on a disk is a very time
consuming process.

Searching an un-indexed and unsorted database containing n key values needs O(n) running time
in worst case. However, if we use B Tree to index this database, it will be searched in O(log n)
time in worst case.

Database or File System - Consider having to search details of a person in Yellow Pages (directory
containing details of professionals). Such a system where you need to search a record among millions
can be done using B Tree.

Search Engines and Multilevel Indexing - B tree Searching is used in search engines and also querying
in MySql Server.

To store blocks of data - B Tree helps in faster storing blocks of data in secondary storage due to the
balanced structure of B Tree.