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Python Programming
Material
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Zero to Mastery: Python Programming

Chapter 1: Introduction to Python

What is Python?
Why Learn Python?
Installing Python and Setting Up the Environment
Running Python Scripts and the Interactive Shell
Writing Your First Python Program
Chapter 2: Python Basics - Syntax and Variables
Understanding Python Syntax
Variables and Data Types (int, float, str, bool)
Comments and Code Readability
C
Basic Input and Output
Chapter 3: Operators and Expressions
Arithmetic Operators
Comparison Operators
Logical Operators
Assignment Operators
Identity and Membership Operators
Chapter 4: Control Flow - Decision Making
if, elif, and else Statements
Nested Conditionals
Short Circuit Evaluation
Chapter 5: Loops and Iterations
for Loop
while Loop
break, continue, and pass Statements
Looping with range()
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Chapter 6: Functions and Modules

Defining Functions (def)
Function Parameters and Return Values
*args and **kwargs
Lambda Functions
Importing and Using Modules
Chapter 7: Data Structures - Lists and Tuples
Lists: Creation, Indexing, Slicing
List Methods (append(), remove(), sort(), etc.)
List Comprehensions
Tuples: Immutable Sequences
Chapter 8: Dictionaries and Sets
Dictionary Basics: Keys and Values
Dictionary Methods (get(), update(), pop(), etc.)
Set Operations (union, intersection, difference)
When to Use Dictionaries vs. Sets
Chapter 9: Working with Strings
String Methods (strip(), split(), join(), etc.)
String Formatting (f-strings, format())
String Manipulation and Common Operations
Chapter 10: File Handling
Reading and Writing Files (open(), read(), write())
Working with Different File Modes (r, w, a, r+)
Handling File Exceptions
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Chapter 11: Exception Handling

try, except, finally, and else
Handling Multiple Exceptions
Raising Custom Exceptions
Chapter 12: Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
Classes and Objects
Constructor (__init__) and Instance Variables
Methods and self
Inheritance and Polymorphism
Encapsulation and Abstraction
Chapter 13: Working with Modules and Packages
Built-in Modules (math, random, os, etc.)
Creating and Importing Custom Modules
Installing and Using External Libraries (pip)
Chapter 14: Working with Databases (SQLite & MySQL)
Introduction to Databases
Connecting to SQLite/MySQL
CRUD Operations (Create, Read, Update, Delete)
Using sqlite3 and mysql-connector-python
Chapter 15: Web Scraping with Python
Introduction to Web Scraping
Using requests to Fetch Web Pages
Parsing HTML with BeautifulSoup
Extracting Data and Saving Results
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Chapter 16: Data Visualization with Matplotlib and Seaborn

Introduction to matplotlib
Plotting Line, Bar, and Scatter Plots
Styling Graphs and Adding Labels
Using seaborn for Advanced Visualization
Chapter 17: Machine Learning Basics
Introduction to Machine Learning
Using scikit-learn for ML Models
Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
Basic Model Training and Evaluation
Chapter 18: Introduction to Web Development with
Flask/Django
Understanding Web Frameworks
Setting Up a Simple Flask/Django App
Handling Routes and Templates
Working with Forms and Databases
Chapter 19: Testing and Debugging in Python
Writing Unit Tests with unittest
Debugging with pdb
Common Python Errors and Fixes
Chapter 20: Advanced Python Concepts
Decorators and Generators
Multi-threading and Parallel Processing
Working with Virtual Environments
Understanding Python’s Memory Management
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Chapter 21: Python Project Ideas and Best Practices

Best Coding Practices and Style Guide (PEP 8)
Project Ideas for Beginners, Intermediate, and Advanced
Levels
Contributing to Open Source and GitHub
Python Career Path: What’s Next?
This roadmap ensures a step-by-step learning path from
absolute beginner to advanced proficiency in Python. Would
you like a more detailed breakdown for any specific chapter?
🚀
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CHAPTER -1
Introduction to Python
What is Python?

Python is a high-level, interpreted programming language that

is widely used for various applications, including web
development, data science, artificial intelligence, automation,
and more. Created by Guido van Rossum in the late 1980s and
officially released in 1991, Python was designed with an
emphasis on simplicity and readability, making it an excellent
choice for both beginners and experienced developers.

Key Features of Python

1. Simple and Readable Syntax

Python’s syntax is clean and easy to understand, resembling

natural language. This makes coding more intuitive and reduces
the learning curve for beginners. Unlike other programming
languages that require complex syntax, Python emphasizes
readability, allowing developers to write fewer lines of code to
achieve the same functionality.

2. Interpreted Language

Python is an interpreted language, meaning that the code is

executed line by line rather than being compiled beforehand.
This allows for quick testing and debugging, making
development faster and more efficient.
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3. Dynamically Typed

Unlike statically typed languages such as C or Java, Python

does not require explicit declaration of variable types. The
interpreter automatically determines the data type at runtime,
making the development process more flexible.

4. Object-Oriented and Procedural

Python supports both object-oriented programming (OOP) and

procedural programming. OOP allows developers to use
concepts like classes and objects, making the code more
reusable and modular. Meanwhile, procedural programming is
suitable for writing simple scripts.

5. Cross-Platform Compatibility

Python is platform-independent, meaning that code written on

one operating system (Windows, macOS, or Linux) can run on
another without modification, as long as Python is installed.

6. Extensive Libraries and Frameworks

Python has a rich ecosystem of libraries and frameworks that

extend its functionality. Some popular ones include:
NumPy, Pandas, and Matplotlib – for data analysis and
visualization
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TensorFlow and PyTorch – for machine learning and deep

learning
Django and Flask – for web development
Selenium – for automation and web scraping
Requests – for working with APIs

7. Large Community and Support

Python has one of the largest programming communities in the

world, meaning there is extensive documentation, forums, and
online tutorials available. This ensures that developers can
easily find solutions to problems and collaborate on open-
source projects.

Applications of Python

Python is a versatile language used in many fields:

1. Web Development – Frameworks like Django and Flask allow

developers to build powerful web applications quickly.
2. Data Science & Machine Learning – Python is widely used in
AI, ML, and data analysis due to its powerful libraries like
Scikit-learn and TensorFlow.
3. Automation & Scripting – Python can automate repetitive
tasks, such as file handling, data entry, and web scraping.
4. Cybersecurity – Python is commonly used in penetration
testing and ethical hacking.
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Game Development – Libraries like Pygame enable the

creation of simple games.
Conclusion
Python’s simplicity, versatility, and extensive support make
it one of the most popular programming languages in the
world. Whether you are a beginner learning to code or a
professional developing complex applications, Python
provides the tools and flexibility to bring ideas to life
efficiently. 🚀
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Why Learn Python?

1. Easy to Learn & Use – Python has a simple syntax similar to

English, making it beginner-friendly and easy to read.
2. Versatile & Powerful – It is used in web development, data
science, AI, automation, and more, making it highly
adaptable.
3. Huge Community Support – A large global community
ensures extensive documentation, tutorials, and
troubleshooting help.
4. Rich Libraries & Frameworks – Python offers vast libraries
like NumPy, TensorFlow, and Django, speeding up
development.
5. High Demand & Career Growth – Python developers are in
high demand, with lucrative job opportunities in various
industries. 🚀
Installing Python and Setting Up the Environment?

Download Python – Visit the official Python website

(python.org) and download the latest version for your OS
(Windows, macOS, or Linux).
Install Python – Run the installer and check the “Add Python
to PATH” option before proceeding with the installation.
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Verify Installation – Open a terminal or command prompt

and type python --version to check if Python is installed
correctly.
Install a Code Editor – Use editors like VS Code, PyCharm, or
Jupyter Notebook for writing and running Python code
efficiently.
Use the Python Shell – Open the terminal and type python
to enter the interactive shell for quick testing of Python
commands.
Install pip (Package Manager) – Ensure pip is installed by
running pip --version, which helps in installing external
libraries.
Set Up a Virtual Environment – Use python -m venv myenv
to create a virtual environment and activate it
(myenv\Scripts\activate on Windows, source
myenv/bin/activate on macOS/Linux).
Install Required Packages – Use pip install package_name to
install necessary Python libraries like NumPy, Pandas, Flask,
etc.
Write Your First Program – Create a Python script (hello.py)
with print("Hello, Python!") and run it using python hello.py.
Explore IDE Features – Learn debugging, syntax highlighting,
and extensions in your chosen IDE for a better coding
experience. 🚀
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Running Python Scripts and the Interactive Shell

1. Using the Interactive Shell – Open a terminal or command

prompt and type python (or python3 on some systems) to
enter the Python interactive shell.
2. Executing Commands – In the interactive shell, you can type
Python commands and see immediate output, making it
useful for quick testing.
3. Exiting the Shell – Type exit() or press Ctrl + Z (Windows) /
Ctrl + D (macOS/Linux) to exit the interactive shell.
4. Creating a Python Script – Write Python code in a text file
with a .py extension, e.g., script.py.
5. Running a Script from Terminal – Use python script.py to
execute the script in the command line.
6. Running a Script in an IDE – Most IDEs like VS Code,
PyCharm, and Jupyter Notebook allow you to run scripts
with a single click.
7. Using Shebang (Linux/macOS) – Add #!/usr/bin/env python3
at the top of a script to run it directly (chmod +x script.py
and ./script.py).
8. Passing Command-Line Arguments – Use sys.argv to accept
arguments, e.g., python script.py arg1 arg2.
9. Running Python in Jupyter Notebook – Install Jupyter using
pip install notebook and run jupyter notebook to write and
execute Python in an interactive environment.
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Debugging Python Code – Use print() for simple debugging

or run scripts with python -m pdb script.py for step-by-step
debugging. 🚀
Writing Your First Python Program ?

Open a Text Editor or IDE – Use a simple text editor like

Notepad or an IDE like VS Code, PyCharm, or Jupyter
Notebook.
Create a New Python File – Save a new file with a .py
extension, e.g., hello.py.
Write Your First Python Code – Type the following simple

program:

python
print("Hello, Python!")

Save the File – Ensure the file is saved in a known directory.

Open a Terminal or Command Prompt – Navigate to the
directory where your file is saved using the cd command.
Run the Python Script – Execute the program by typing
python hello.py and pressing Enter.
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See the Output – The terminal should display: Hello,

Python!.
Modify the Program – Try adding another line, like:

python :

name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello, " + name + "!")
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CHAPTER -2
Python Basics - Syntax and Variables

Understanding Python Syntax

✔ Indentation-Based Structure – Uses indentation instead of {}

to define code blocks.
✔ Dynamic Typing – No need to declare variable types; Python
assigns them automatically.
✔ Simple & Readable – Clear syntax, similar to English, with
minimal keywords.
✔ No Semicolons Required – Statements don’t require ; at the
end.
✔ Case-Sensitive – variable and Variable are treated as
different identifiers.
✔ Comments for Clarity – Use # for single-line comments and '''
''' or """ """ for multi-line comments.
✔ Extensive Standard Library – Comes with built-in modules
and functions for efficient programming.

Example:
# Print a message
print("Hello, Python!") # Output: Hello, Python!
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Variables and Data Types (int, float, str, bool)

1. Variables

Variables store data and are dynamically typed (no need for
explicit declaration).
Assigned using = (e.g., x = 10).

2. Data Types

Integer (int) – Whole numbers (e.g., x = 10).

Float (float) – Decimal numbers (e.g., y = 3.14).
String (str) – Text enclosed in quotes (e.g., name = "Santhosh").
✔ Boolean (bool) – True/False values (e.g., is active = True).

Example Code:

x = 10 # Integer
y = 3.14 # Float
name = "Python" # String
is_active = True # Boolean

print(type(x), type(y), type(name), type(is_active))

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Comments and Code Readability

Comments and Code Readability in Python

1. Comments in Python
✔ Single-Line Comments – Use # to add a comment.
✔ Multi-Line Comments – Use ''' ''' or """ """ for block
comments.
2. Importance of Code Readability
✔ Indentation-Based Structure – Python enforces indentation
for clean, readable code.
✔ Descriptive Variable Names – Use meaningful names
(total_price instead of tp).
✔ Consistent Formatting – Follow PEP 8 guidelines for better
readability.
✔ Limit Line Length – Keep lines under 79 characters for clarity.
Example Code:

# This is a single-line comment

'''
This is a multi-line comment.
It explains the purpose of the code below.
'''
def greet(name):
"""Returns a greeting message"""
return f"Hello, {name}!" # Using an f-string for readability

print(greet("Santhosh"))
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C Programming - Basics

C is a powerful, general-purpose programming language widely

used for system programming, embedded systems, and
application development.

1. Features of C
1. Fast & Efficient – Low-level memory access and minimal
runtime overhead.
2.Portable & Cross-Platform – Can run on various operating
systems.
3. Structured Programming – Supports functions and modular
code.
4.Rich Library Support – Standard libraries for I/O, math, and
more.
5.Foundation for Other Languages – Influenced C++, Java, and
Python.

2. Basic Syntax in C

#include <stdio.h> // Include standard input-output library

int main() {
printf("Hello, C!"); // Print statement
return 0; // Exit the program
}
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3. Variables & Data Types in C

1 Integer (int) – Whole numbers (e.g., int x = 10;)

2 Float (float) – Decimal numbers (e.g., float y = 3.14;)
3 Character (char) – Single character (e.g., char c = 'A';)
4Double (double) – High-precision floating point (e.g., double d
= 3.14159;)

4. Type Casting in C
Explicit conversion using type casting:

int a = 10;
float b = (float)a; // Converts int to float
printf("%f", b); // Output: 10.000000
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Basic Input and Output

Basic Input and Output in C

In C, input and output operations are performed using the

printf() and scanf() functions from the stdio.h library.
1. Output Using printf()
The printf() function displays output on the screen.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, C Programming!\n"); // \n is used for a
new line
return 0;
}

Output:

Hello, C Programming!
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Chapter 3
Operators and Expressions

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic Operators in C
Arithmetic operators in C are used to perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.

1. List of Arithmetic Operators

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Example in Python
a = 10
b=3

print("Addition:", a + b) # 13
print("Subtraction:", a - b) # 7
print("Multiplication:", a * b) # 30
print("Division:", a / b) # 3.3333
print("Modulus:", a % b) #1
print("Exponentiation:", a ** b) # 1000
print("Floor Division:", a // b) # 3

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values and return a boolean
result (True or False).
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Examples in Python

Checking Equality (==)

a = 10
b = 10
print(a == b) # True

2.Checking Inequality (!=)

x=5
y=3
print(x != y) # True

3.Using in Conditional Statements

age = 18
if age >= 18:
print("You can vote.")
else:
print("You cannot vote.")

4.Using in Loops

num = 1
while num <= 5:
print(num)
num += 1
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Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine multiple conditions and
return a Boolean value (True or False)

1.Using and (Both Conditions Must Be True)

age = 20
has_voter_id = True

if age >= 18 and has_voter_id:

print("You are eligible to vote.") # Output: You are eligible to vote.
else:
print("You are not eligible to vote.")
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2.Using or (At Least One Condition Must Be True)

rainy = False
umbrella = True

if rainy or umbrella:
print("You are prepared for rain.") # Output: You are prepared for
rain.
else:
print("You might get wet!")

3.Using not (Reverses the Condition)

is_sunny = False

if not is_sunny:
print("It's not a sunny day.") # Output: It's not a sunny day.

Usage in Loops

num = 5
while not (num == 0): # Loop runs until num becomes 0
print(num)
num -= 1
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Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. They can
also perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.,
while assigning values.

1. Basic Assignment (=)

x = 10
print(x) # Output: 10

2.Addition Assignment (+=)

x=5
x += 3 # x = x + 3
print(x) # Output: 8
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3. Subtraction Assignment (-=)

x = 10
x -= 4 # x = x - 4
print(x) # Output: 6

4.Multiplication Assignment (*=)

x=7
x *= 2 # x = x * 2
print(x) # Output: 14

5. Division Assignment (/=)

x=9
x /= 3 # x = x / 3
print(x) # Output: 3.0

6.Floor Division Assignment (//=)

x = 10
x //= 3 # x = x // 3
print(x) # Output: 3

7.Modulus Assignment (%=)

x = 10
x %= 3 # x = x % 3
print(x) # Output: 1

8.Exponentiation Assignment (**=)

x=2
x **= 3 # x = x ** 3
print(x) # Output: 8
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Identity and Membership Operators

1.Identity Operators (is, is not)
Identity operators compare the memory addresses of two objects to
check if they refer to the same

Examples of Identity Operators

a = [1, 2, 3]
b=a
c = [1, 2, 3]

print(a is b) # True (same object)

print(a is c) # False (different objects with same values)
print(a is not c) # True (because they are different objects)

2.Membership Operators (in, not in)

Membership operators check if a value is present in a sequence (like a
string, list, tuple, or dictionary).
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Examples of Membership Operators

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print("banana" in fruits) # True
print("grape" not in fruits) # True

text = "Hello, world!"

print("Hello" in text) # True
print("bye" not in text) # True

Real-World Example
user_roles = ["admin", "editor", "viewer"]
if "admin" in user_roles:
print("Access granted!")
else:
print("Access denied.")
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Chapter 4
Control Flow - Decision Making

if, elif, and else Statements

Conditional statements allow us to execute different blocks of code
based on certain conditions.

1.if Statement
The if statement executes a block of code only if the condition is
True.
age = 18
if age >= 18:
print("You are eligible to vote.")
Output:
You are eligible to vote.

2.if-else Statement
The else block runs if the if condition is False.
age = 16
if age >= 18:
print("You can vote.")
else:
print("You cannot vote yet.")

Output:
You cannot vote yet.
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3.if-elif-else Statement
1.elif (short for "else if") allows checking multiple conditions.
2.The first condition that evaluates to True gets executed, and the
rest are ignored.
marks = 85

if marks >= 90:

print("Grade: A")
elif marks >= 80:
print("Grade: B")
elif marks >= 70:
print("Grade: C")
else:
print("Grade: D"
Output:
Grade: B

4.Nested if Statements
You can place an if inside another if to check multiple conditions.
age = 20
has_voter_id = True

if age >= 18:

if has_voter_id:
print("You can vote.")
else:
print("You need a voter ID.")
else:
print("You are too young to vote.")
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Output:
You can vote.

5.Using if with Logical Operators (and, or, not)

temperature = 30
humidity = 70

if temperature > 25 and humidity > 60:

print("It's hot and humid!")
Output:
It's hot and humid!

6.Short if Statement (Ternary Operator)

Python allows a compact one-line if-else statement.
age = 20
status = "Adult" if age >= 18 else "Minor"
print(status)
Output:
Adult

Real-World Example
username = "admin"
password = "1234"

if username == "admin" and password == "1234":

print("Login successful!")
else:
print("Invalid credentials.")
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Nested Conditionals
A nested conditional means placing one if statement inside another.
This allows for checking multiple conditions where one condition
depends on another.
Syntax of Nested Conditionals
if condition1:
if condition2:
# Code block executes if both conditions are True
else:
# Code block executes if condition1 is True but condition2 is False
else:
# Code block executes if condition1 is False
Example 1: Checking Age and ID for Voting
age = 20
has_voter_id = True

if age >= 18: # Outer condition

if has_voter_id: # Inner condition
print("You are eligible to vote.")
else:
print("You need a voter ID to vote.")
else:
print("You are too young to vote.")
Output:
You are eligible to vote.
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Short Circuit Evaluation

What is Short-Circuit Evaluation?
Short-circuit evaluation means that in a logical expression, Python
stops evaluating as soon as the final result is determined. This
improves performance by avoiding unnecessary computations.

1.Short-Circuit with and Operator

The and operator stops evaluating if the first condition is False
because the whole expression will be False regardless of the other
conditions.
Example:
x=0
y = 10

if x != 0 and y / x > 2:
print("Condition met!")
else:
print("Short-circuited: Division by zero avoided!")
Output:
Short-circuited: Division by zero avoided!
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Chapter 5
Loops and Iterations
1.for Loop
A for loop is used to iterate over a sequence (list, tuple, string,
dictionary, range, etc.) and execute a block of code multiple times.

1.Basic Syntax
for variable in sequence:
# Code to execute in each iteration
2.Looping Through a List
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
3.Using range() in a for Loop
The range(start, stop, step) function generates a sequence of
numbers.
for i in range(1, 6): # Loops from 1 to 5
print(i)
4.Looping Through a String
for letter in "Python":
print(letter)
5.Looping Through a Dictionary
student = {"name": "Hari", "age": 20, "grade": "A"}
for key, value in student.items():
print(key, ":", value)
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6.Using break in a for Loop

1.break exits the loop when a condition is met.
for num in range(1, 10):
if num == 5:
break # Stops at 5
print(num)
7.Using continue in a for Loop
1.continue skips the current iteration and moves to the next.
for num in range(1, 6):
if num == 3:
continue # Skips 3
print(num)
8.Using else with for Loop
The else block runs only if the loop completes without break.
for num in range(1, 4):
print(num)
else:
print("Loop finished!")
9.Nested for Loop
for i in range(1, 4):
for j in range(1, 4):
print(i, j)
10.Practical Example: Multiplication Table
num = 5
for i in range(1, 11):
print(f"{num} x {i} = {num * i}")
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2.while Loop
A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a given condition is
True.
1.Basic Syntax
while condition:
# Code to execute
2.Example: Print Numbers from 1 to 5
i=1
while i <= 5:
print(i)
i += 1 # Increment to avoid infinite loop
3.Infinite Loop (Be Careful!)
while True: # Infinite loop
print("This will run forever!")
4.Using break in while Loop
i=1
while i <= 10:
if i == 5:
break # Stops when i is 5
print(i)
i += 1
5.Using continue in while Loop
i=0
while i < 5:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue # Skips printing 3
print(i)
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3.break, continue, and pass Statements

These statements control the flow of loops (for and while), allowing
you to alter their execution.

1️⃣ break Statement

1.Stops the loop immediately when encountered.
2.The program exits the loop and moves to the next code block.

Example: Stop Loop When i Reaches 3

for i in range(1, 6):
if i == 3:
break # Exits the loop when i == 3
print(i)

2️⃣ continue Statement

Skips the current iteration and moves to the next one.
The loop does not stop, it just skips certain values.

Example: Skip Number 3

for i in range(1, 6):
if i == 3:
continue # Skips printing 3
print(i)
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3️⃣ pass Statement

1.Does nothing, acts as a placeholder.
2.Used when you need a syntactically correct block but don’t want to
execute anything.

Example: Using pass in a Loop

for i in range(5):
pass # Placeholder, avoids syntax error

4. Looping with range()

The range() function is commonly used with loops to generate a
sequence of numbers.

1️⃣ Basic Syntax of range()

range(start, stop, step)
1.start → (Optional) The starting number (default is 0).
2.stop → The ending number (not included in the range).
3.step → (Optional) The difference between each number (default is
1).

2️⃣ Using range() with a for Loop

Example 1: Counting from 0 to 4
for i in range(5): # Starts from 0, goes up to 4
print(i)
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3️⃣ Specifying start and stop Values

Example 2: Counting from 2 to 6
for i in range(2, 7): # Starts from 2, stops at 6
print(i)

4️⃣ Using step to Control the Increment

Example 3: Counting by 2s
for i in range(1, 10, 2): # Start at 1, step by 2, stop before 10
print(i)

5️⃣ Looping in Reverse

Example 4: Counting Down from 5 to 1
for i in range(5, 0, -1): # Start at 5, step down by 1, stop before 0
print(i)

6️⃣ Using range() with list()

Example 5: Creating a List of Numbers
numbers = list(range(1, 6))
print(numbers)

7️⃣ Looping Over Indexes in a List

Example 6: Using range() with len()
fruits = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry"]
for i in range(len(fruits)):
print(f"Index {i}: {fruits[i]}")
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Chapter 6
Functions and Modules

1.Defining Functions (def)

A function in Python is a reusable block of code that performs a
specific task. Functions help in code reusability, modularity, and
readability.

1️⃣ Defining a Function Using def

Syntax:
def function_name(parameters):
"""Optional docstring"""
# Code block (Function body)
return value # Optional

2️⃣ Creating a Simple Function

Example 1: Function Without Parameters
def greet():
print("Hello, welcome to Python!")
# Calling the function
greet()

3️⃣ Function with Parameters

Example 2: Function with One Parameter
def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet("Santhosh")
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4️⃣ Function with Multiple Parameters

Example 3: Add Two Numbers
def add_numbers(a, b):
return a + b

result = add_numbers(5, 3)
print("Sum:", result)

5️⃣ Function with Default Parameter Values

Example 4: Default Parameter
def power(base, exponent=2): # Default value = 2
return base ** exponent

print(power(3)) # Uses default exponent=2

print(power(3, 3)) # Overrides default, exponent=3

6️⃣ Function with Return Statement

Example 5: Returning a Value
def square(num):
return num * num

result = square(4)
print("Square:", result)

7️⃣ Function with Variable Arguments (*args)

Example 6: Sum of Multiple Numbers
def sum_all(*numbers):
return sum(numbers
print(sum_all(1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
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2.Function Parameters and Return Values

Functions in Python allow us to pass values (parameters) and return
results (return values). These features make functions flexible and
reusable.

1️⃣ Function Parameters

Parameters (also called arguments) allow functions to receive inputs.
Types of Function Parameters
1.Positional Parameters
2.Default Parameters
3.Arbitrary Arguments (*args)
4.Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

2️⃣ Positional Parameters

Values are passed in order to the function.
Example: Positional Arguments
def greet(name, age):
print(f"Hello {name}, you are {age} years old!")
greet("Santhosh", 21)

3️⃣ Default Parameters

Default values are used if no argument is passed.
Example: Default Argument
def greet(name="Guest"):
print(f"Hello {name}!")

greet() # Uses default value

greet("Chinni") # Overrides default value
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4️⃣ Arbitrary Arguments (*args)

Used when multiple arguments are passed, but their count is
unknown.
def total_sum(*numbers):
return sum(numbers)

print(total_sum(5, 10, 15))

print(total_sum(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6))
Example: Using *args

5️⃣ Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

Used when multiple named arguments are passed.
Example: Using **kwargs
def student_info(**details):
for key, value in details.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

student_info(name="Santhosh", age=21, course="Python")

6️⃣ Return Values

Functions can return values using the return keyword.
Example: Function Returning a Value
def square(num):
return num * num

result = square(4)
print("Square:", result)
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3.*args and **kwargs

In Python, *args and **kwargs are used to pass a variable number of
arguments to a function.

1️⃣ *args (Arbitrary Positional Arguments)

*args allows a function to accept multiple positional arguments as
a tuple.
We use * before a parameter name to indicate that it can take
multiple values.
Example: Using *args
def add_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 6

print(add_numbers(5, 10, 15, 20)) # Output: 50

2️⃣ **kwargs (Arbitrary Keyword Arguments)

**kwargs allows a function to accept multiple keyword arguments as a
dictionary.
We use ** before a parameter name to indicate that it can take key-value
pairs.
Example: Using **kwargs
def student_info(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")
student_info(name="Santhosh", age=21, course="Python")
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2️⃣ **kwargs (Arbitrary Keyword Arguments)

1.**kwargs allows a function to accept multiple keyword arguments
as a dictionary.
2.We use ** before a parameter name to indicate that it can take key-
value pairs.
Example: Using **kwargs
def student_info(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

student_info(name="Santhosh", age=21, course="Python")

3️⃣ Combining *args and **kwargs

We can use both *args and **kwargs together in a function.
Example: Mixing *args and **kwargs
def order_summary(order_id, *items, **details):
print(f"Order ID: {order_id}")
print("\nItems Ordered:")
for item in items:
print("-", item)
print("\nOrder Details:")
for key, value in details.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")
order_summary(
101,
"Pizza", "Burger", "Coke",
name="Santhosh", address="Hyderabad", payment="Online"
)
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4.Lambda Functions
A lambda function (also called an anonymous function) is a small,
one-line function that does not require a name. It is used for short,
simple operations where defining a full function is unnecessary.

1️⃣ Syntax of a Lambda Function

lambda arguments: expression

2️⃣ Example: Basic Lambda Function

square = lambda x: x * x
print(square(5))

3️⃣ Lambda Function with Multiple Arguments

add = lambda a, b: a + b
print(add(10, 20))

4️⃣ Using Lambda with map()

The map() function applies a lambda function to each element of a
list.
Example: Squaring a List
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
squared = list(map(lambda x: x ** 2, numbers))
print(squared)

5️⃣ Using Lambda with filter()

The filter() function selects elements from a list based on a condition.
Example: Filtering Even Numbers
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
evens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))
print(evens)
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5.Importing and Using Modules

1️⃣
What is a Module?
A module in Python is a file containing Python code (functions,
classes, variables) that can be reused in other programs.
Python has built-in modules (like math, random, os).
You can also create your own modules.

2️⃣ Importing a Module

You can import a module using the import statement.
Example: Importing the math Module
import math
print(math.sqrt(25)) # Output: 5.0
print(math.pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793

3️⃣ Importing Specific Functions

Instead of importing the whole module, you can import only specific
functions.
Example: Importing Only sqrt and pi
from math import sqrt, pi
print(sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0
print(pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793

4️⃣ Importing a Module with an Alias

You can rename a module using as.
Example: Using an Alias for math
import math as m

print(m.sqrt(49)) # Output: 7.0

print(m.pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793
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5️⃣ Importing All Functions (*)

You can import everything from a module, but this is not
recommended (it may cause conflicts).
Example: Import Everything
from math import *
print(sin(0)) # Output: 0.0
print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

6️⃣ Creating Your Own Module

You can create a Python file and import it as a module.
Example: Creating a Custom Module
import greetings
print(greetings.hello("Santhosh")) # Output: Hello, Santhosh!
print(greetings.goodbye("Chinni")) # Output: Goodbye, Chinni!

7️⃣ Using dir() to List Module Contents

You can use dir() to see all functions in a module.
Example: Listing Functions in math
import math
print(dir(math))

8️⃣ Installing and Using External Modules

Some modules are not built-in, so you must install them using pip.
Example: Installing numpy
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])

print(arr)
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Chapter 7
Data Structures - Lists and Tuples
1.Lists: Creation, Indexing, Slicing
A list in Python is a mutable, ordered collection that can store
different data types like integers, strings, and even other lists.

1️⃣ Creating Lists

You can create a list using square brackets [] or the list() function.
Example: Creating Lists
# Empty List
empty_list = []
# List with Integers
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# List with Mixed Data Types
mixed_list = [10, "Santhosh", 3.14, True]
# List using list() function
letters = list("Python")
print(numbers) # Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print(mixed_list) # Output: [10, 'Santhosh', 3.14, True]
print(letters) # Output: ['P', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n']

2️⃣ Indexing Lists

Lists use zero-based indexing, meaning the first element is at index 0.
Example: Accessing Elements
fruits = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry", "Date"]

print(fruits[0]) # Output: Apple

print(fruits[2]) # Output: Cherry
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3️⃣ Slicing Lists

Slicing allows you to extract a subset of a list.
Syntax:
list[start:end:step]
1.start: The index where slicing begins (default = 0).
2.end: The index where slicing stops (not included).
3.step: The interval between elements (default = 1).

2.List Methods (append(), remove(), sort(), etc.)

1️⃣Adding Elements to a List
🔹 append() → Add an element to the end
fruits = ["Apple", "Banana"]
fruits.append("Cherry")
print(fruits) # Output: ['Apple', 'Banana', 'Cherry']

2️⃣ Removing Elements from a List

🔹 remove() → Remove a specific element
fruits.remove("Mango")
print(fruits) # Output: ['Apple', 'Banana', 'Cherry', 'Orange', 'Grapes']

3️⃣ Finding Elements

🔹 index() → Find the index of an element
numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
print(numbers.index(30)) # Output: 2

4️⃣ Sorting and Reversing

🔹 sort() → Sort the list (ascending by default)
numbers = [5, 2, 9, 1, 5, 6]
numbers.sort()
print(numbers) # Output: [1, 2, 5, 5, 6, 9]
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5️⃣ Copying a List

🔹 copy() → Create a copy of a list
original = [1, 2, 3]
copy_list = original.copy()
print(copy_list) # Output: [1, 2, 3]

3.List Comprehensions
List comprehension is a concise and efficient way to create lists in
Python. It helps write clean, readable, and faster code.
🔹 Basic Syntax
new_list = [expression for item in iterable if condition]
expression → What to do with each item
iterable → Any iterable (list, tuple, range, etc.)
condition (optional) → Filter items based on a condition
Examples:
1. Creating a list from a range
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 6)]
print(squares) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
2. Filtering even numbers
evens = [x for x in range(10) if x % 2 == 0]
print(evens) # Output: [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
3. Applying a function to each element
words = ["hello", "world", "python"]
upper_words = [word.upper() for word in words]
print(upper_words) # Output: ['HELLO', 'WORLD', 'PYTHON']
4. Using if-else in list comprehension
labels = ["Even" if x % 2 == 0 else "Odd" for x in range(5)]
print(labels) # Output: ['Even', 'Odd', 'Even', 'Odd', 'Even']
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4.Tuples: Immutable Sequences

A tuple is an ordered, immutable collection of elements in Python.
Unlike lists, tuples cannot be modified after creation, making them
useful for storing fixed sets of data.

1. Using Parentheses ():

numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
print(numbers) # Output: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

2. Without Parentheses (Tuple Packing):

person = "Santhosh", 22, "India"
print(person) # Output: ('Santhosh', 22, 'India')

3. Single Element Tuple (Comma Needed!):

single = (5,)
print(type(single)) # Output: <class 'tuple'>

Accessing Elements
Tuples support indexing and slicing like lists.
t = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

print(t[0]) # Output: 10 (First element)

print(t[-1]) # Output: 50 (Last element)
print(t[1:4]) # Output: (20, 30, 40) (Slicing)
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Chapter 8:
Dictionaries and Sets

Dictionary Basics: Keys and Values

A dictionary in Python is an unordered, mutable collection that stores data in
key-value pairs. It is defined using curly braces {} or the dict() function.
Creating a Dictionary

1. Using {}
student = {"name": "Santhosh", "age": 22, "course": "Python"}
print(student)
# Output: {'name': 'Santhosh', 'age': 22, 'course': 'Python'}

2. Using dict()
person = dict(name="Chinni", city="Hyderabad", age=21)
print(person)
# Output: {'name': 'Chinni', 'city': 'Hyderabad', 'age': 21}

Modifying Dictionary

1. Adding a New Key-Value Pair

student["grade"] = "A"
print(student)
# Output: {'name': 'Santhosh', 'age': 22, 'course': 'Python', 'grade': 'A'}

2. Updating an Existing Value

student["age"] = 23
print(student)
# Output: {'name': 'Santhosh', 'age': 23, 'course': 'Python', 'grade': 'A'}
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2.Dictionary Methods (get(), update(), pop(), etc.)

Dictionaries in Python provide several built-in methods to manipulate key-value
pairs efficiently. Here’s a breakdown of commonly used methods with examples.

1. get() – Retrieve Value Safely

Returns the value for the specified key. If the key doesn’t exist, it returns None
(or a default value if provided).
student = {"name": "Santhosh", "age": 22, "course": "Python"}
print(student.get("name")) # Output: Santhosh
print(student.get("grade")) # Output: None (Key does not exist)
print(student.get("grade", "Not Assigned")) # Output: Not Assigned

2. update() – Merge or Update Dictionary

Updates the dictionary with new key-value pairs or another
dictionary.student.update({"age": 23, "grade": "A"}) # Updates existing key &
adds new one
print(student)
# Output: {'name': 'Santhosh', 'age': 23, 'course': 'Python', 'grade': 'A'}
# Using another dictionary
extra_info = {"city": "Hyderabad", "college": "Sri Indu"}
student.update(extra_info)
print(student)
# Output: {'name': 'Santhosh', 'age': 23, 'course': 'Python', 'grade': 'A', 'city':
'Hyderabad', 'college': 'Sri Indu'}

3. pop() – Remove and Return a Value

Removes the specified key and returns its value. If the key doesn’t exist, it raises
a KeyError.
removed_value = student.pop("age")
print(removed_value) # Output: 23
print(student) # 'age' key is removed
# Using a default value to avoid KeyError
print(student.pop("age", "Key not found")) # Output: Key not found
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4. popitem() – Remove and Return the Last Item

Removes and returns the last key-value pair (in Python 3.7+)
pair = student.popitem()
print(pair) # Example Output: ('college', 'Sri Indu')
print(student) # 'college' key is removed

5. keys() – Get All Keys

Returns a list-like view of all keys.
print(student.keys()) # Output: dict_keys(['name', 'course', 'grade', 'city'])

6. values() – Get All Values

Returns a list-like view of all values.
print(student.values()) # Output: dict_values(['Santhosh', 'Python', 'A',
'Hyderabad'])

7. items() – Get All Key-Value Pairs

Returns a list-like view of all (key, value) pairs.
print(student.items())
# Output: dict_items([('name', 'Santhosh'), ('course', 'Python'), ('grade', 'A'),
('city', 'Hyderabad')]

8. clear() – Remove All Elements

Deletes all key-value pairs, making the dictionary empty.
student.clear()
print(student) # Output: {}

10. setdefault() – Get or Set a Default Value

Returns the value of a key if it exists; otherwise, inserts the key with a default
value.
name = student.setdefault("name", "Unknown")
print(name) # Output: 'Santhosh' (already exists)
city = student.setdefault("city", "Hyderabad")
print(city) # Output: 'Hyderabad' (added as new key)
print(student) # 'city' key is now in dictionary
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3.Set Operations (union, intersection, difference)

A set in Python is an unordered, mutable collection of unique elements. It
supports various mathematical operations like union, intersection, and
difference.

1. Creating a Set
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
print(A) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
print(B) # Output: {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

2. Union (| or union())
Combines all elements from both sets without duplicates.
C = A | B # Using `|` operator
print(C) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
D = A.union(B) # Using `union()` method
print(D) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

3. Intersection (& or intersection())

Returns only the elements that are common in both sets.
C = A & B # Using `&` operator
print(C) # Output: {4, 5}
D = A.intersection(B) # Using `intersection()` method
print(D) # Output: {4, 5}

4. Difference (- or difference())
Returns elements that are only in the first set, removing common elements.
C = A - B # Using `-` operator
print(C) # Output: {1, 2, 3}
D = A.difference(B) # Using `difference()` method
print(D) # Output: {1, 2, 3}
E=B-A
print(E) # Output: {6, 7, 8} (elements only in B)
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4.When to Use Dictionaries vs. Sets

Both dictionaries and sets are built-in data structures in Python, but they serve
different purposes. Let’s break down their key differences and when to use each.

1. Key Differences Between Dictionaries and Sets

2. When to Use a Dictionary?

Example Use Cases:
Storing user data ({ "name": "Santhosh", "age": 22 })
Counting occurrences ({"apple": 3, "banana": 2})
Caching results for fast lookups

Example: Storing Student Information

student = {"name": "Santhosh", "age": 22, "course": "Python"}
print(student["name"]) # Output: Santhosh

Example: Word Frequency Counter

words = ["apple", "banana", "apple", "orange", "banana", "apple"]
word_count = {}
for word in words:
word_count[word] = word_count.get(word, 0) + 1
print(word_count) # Output: {'apple': 3, 'banana': 2, 'orange': 1}
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3. When to Use a Set?

Use a set when you need a collection of unique items or need to perform set
operations (union, intersection, difference, etc.).

Example Use Cases:

Removing duplicates from a list
Checking membership (if x in set)
Performing set operations (union, intersection, difference)

Example: Removing Duplicates from a List

numbers = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5]
unique_numbers = set(numbers)
print(unique_numbers) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Example: Checking Membership (Faster than List)

prime_numbers = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}
print(7 in prime_numbers) # Output: True
print(9 in prime_numbers) # Output: False

Example: Set Operations

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
print(A | B) # Union: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
print(A & B) # Intersection: {4, 5}
print(A - B) # Difference: {1, 2, 3}

5. Conclusion
Use a dictionary (dict) when you need to map keys to values and perform fast
lookups.
Use a set (set) when you need a collection of unique items or want to perform
set operations efficiently.
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Chapter 9:
Working with Strings

1.String Methods (strip(), split(), join(), etc.)

Strings in Python come with powerful built-in methods that help in text
processing and manipulation. Let's explore some of the most useful string
methods.

1. strip() – Remove Whitespace or Specific Characters

Removes leading and trailing whitespace (spaces, newlines, tabs) or specified
characters.
text = " Hello, Python! "
print(text.strip()) # Output: "Hello, Python!"

custom_text = "---Hello---"
print(custom_text.strip("-")) # Output: "Hello"
Related Methods:
lstrip() → Removes leading (left) spaces/characters.
rstrip() → Removes trailing (right) spaces/characters.
txt = " Hello "
print(txt.lstrip()) # Output: "Hello "
print(txt.rstrip()) # Output: " Hello"

2. split() – Convert String to a List

Splits a string into a list based on a delimiter (default: space).
sentence = "Python is awesome"
words = sentence.split()
print(words) # Output: ['Python', 'is', 'awesome']

Split only a limited number of times:

data = "name:age:location"
print(data.split(":", 1)) # Output: ['name', 'age:location']
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3. join() – Convert List to a String

Joins elements of a list into a single string using a specified separator.
words = ['Python', 'is', 'awesome']
sentence = " ".join(words)
print(sentence) # Output: "Python is awesome"

4. replace() – Replace Substring in a String

Replaces a specific substring with another substring.
text = "I love Java"
new_text = text.replace("Java", "Python")
print(new_text) # Output: "I love Python"

Replace multiple occurrences:

message = "apple apple apple"
print(message.replace("apple", "banana"))
# Output: "banana banana banana"

Replace only a limited number of times:

msg = "hello hello hello"
print(msg.replace("hello", "hi", 2))
# Output: "hi hi hello"

5. find() and index() – Search for Substrings

find() returns the index of the first occurrence of a substring.
index() works the same but raises an error if the substring is not found.
text = "Python is fun"
print(text.find("is")) # Output: 7
print(text.index("is")) # Output: 7

Handling missing substrings:

print(text.find("Java")) # Output: -1
# print(text.index("Java")) # Error: ValueError
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2.String Formatting (f-strings, format())

String formatting in Python allows you to create dynamic strings by inserting
variables into them. There are multiple ways to format strings, but the most
commonly used methods are f-strings and the format() method.

1. f-strings (Formatted String Literals)

Introduced in Python 3.6, f-strings are the most concise and efficient way to
format strings.
Syntax:
name = "Santhosh"
age = 21
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

2. The format() Method

The format() method was introduced in Python 3.0 and allows placeholders {} to
be replaced with variables.
Basic Syntax:
name = "Santhosh"
age = 21
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age))

3. Formatting Numbers and Decimal Places

Both f-strings and format() allow number formatting.
Using f-strings:
pi = 3.1415926535
print(f"Pi rounded to 2 decimal places: {pi:.2f}")

4. Formatting Numbers with Commas

You can format large numbers with commas for better readability.
Using f-strings:
num = 1000000
print(f"Number with comma: {num:,}")
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3.String Manipulation and Common Operations

Python provides powerful string manipulation techniques, allowing you to
modify, format, and analyze strings efficiently.

1. Basic String Operations

Creating a String
text = "Hello, Python!"
Accessing Characters
print(text[0]) # H
print(text[-1]) # !

Slicing a String
print(text[0:5]) # Hello
print(text[:5]) # Hello
print(text[7:]) # Python!
print(text[-7:-1]) # Python

2. Modifying Strings
Converting Case
text = "Python Programming"
print(text.upper()) # PYTHON PROGRAMMING
print(text.lower()) # python programming
print(text.title()) # Python Programming
print(text.capitalize()) # Python programming
print(text.swapcase()) # pYTHON pROGRAMMING

Stripping Whitespace
text = " Hello, Python! "
print(text.strip()) # "Hello, Python!"
print(text.lstrip()) # "Hello, Python! "
print(text.rstrip()) # " Hello, Python!"
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3. Checking String Content

Checking for Substrings
text = "Python is amazing"
print("Python" in text) # True
print("Java" not in text) # True

Finding the Index of a Substring

text = "Learn Python Programming"
print(text.find("Python")) # 6
print(text.index("Python")) # 6 (similar to find but raises an error if not found)

4. Splitting and Joining Strings

Splitting a String into a List
text = "apple,banana,orange"
print(text.split(",")) # ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']

5. Formatting Strings
Using f-strings
name = "Santhosh"
age = 21
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

6. Reversing a String
text = "Python"
print(text[::-1]) # nohtyP

7. Checking if a String is Alphabetic/Numeric

print("Hello".isalpha()) # True
print("12345".isdigit()) # True
print("Hello123".isalnum()) # True
print(" ".isspace()) # True
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Chapter 10
File Handling
1.Reading and Writing Files (open(), read(), write())
In Python, file handling is done using built-in functions like open(), read(), and
write(). Here’s how you can use them:

1. Opening a File (open())

The open() function is used to open a file. It has the syntax:
file = open("filename", "mode")

Modes available:
"r" → Read mode (default, file must exist)
"w" → Write mode (creates a new file or overwrites an existing file)
"a" → Append mode (adds content to an existing file)
"r+" → Read and write
"w+" → Write and read (overwrites)
"a+" → Append and read

2. Reading a File (read(), readline(), readlines())

Once a file is opened in read mode, you can read its contents using:
file = open("example.txt", "r")
content = file.read() # Reads entire file
print(content)
file.close()

3. Writing to a File (write(), writelines())

Writing to a file requires "w" or "a" mode.
file = open("example.txt", "w") # Opens file for writing (overwrites)
file.write("Hello, World!\n") # Writes text
file.close()
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4. Using with Statement (Best Practice)

Using with open() automatically closes the file after use.
with open("example.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
# No need to call file.close()

2.Working with Different File Modes (r, w, a, r+)

In Python, when working with files, different file modes determine how a file is
opened and how data can be read or written. Below are the commonly used file
modes:
1. Read Mode (r)
1.Opens a file for reading only.
2.If the file does not exist, it raises a FileNotFoundError.
3.The file pointer is placed at the beginning of the file.with open("example.txt",
"r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)

2. Write Mode (w)

Opens a file for writing.
If the file does not exist, it creates a new one.
If the file exists, it overwrites the content.
with open("example.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Hello, this is a new file content.")

3. Append Mode (a)

Opens a file for appending new data at the end.
If the file does not exist, it creates a new one.
Existing content is not erased.
with open("example.txt", "a") as file:
file.write("\nThis is appended content.")
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3.Handling File Exceptions

Handling file exceptions in programming, especially in Python, is crucial to
ensure that your program runs smoothly even when unexpected issues arise,
such as missing files, permission errors, or incorrect file formats.

Common File Exceptions in Python

1. FileNotFoundError – When the file does not exist.
2. PermissionError – When the user does not have the required permissions.
3. IsADirectoryError – When a directory is provided instead of a file.
4. IOError – General input/output errors.
5. EOFError – Unexpected end of file.
Best Practices for Handling File Exceptions
Use a try-except block to catch and handle exceptions gracefully.

Example 1: Handling File Not Found

try:
with open("data.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
except FileNotFoundError:
print("Error: The file was not found. Please check the file path.")

Example 2: Using finally to Ensure Cleanup

try:
file = open("data.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
print(content)
except FileNotFoundError:
print("Error: File not found.")
finally:
if 'file' in locals() and not file.closed:
file.close()
print("File closed successfully.")
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Chapter 11
Exception Handling
1.Try, except, finally, and else
In Python, the try, except, finally, and else blocks are used for handling
exceptions. Here’s how each of them works:
1. try Block
The code inside the try block is executed first.
If an exception occurs, it is caught by the except block.
If no exception occurs, the else block (if present) is executed.
2. except Block
This block is executed if an exception occurs inside the try block.
Multiple except blocks can handle different exceptions.
3. else Block (Optional)
If no exception occurs in the try block, the else block is executed.
It is used when you want to run some code only if no errors occur.
4. finally Block (Optional)
The finally block is always executed, regardless of whether an exception
occurs or not.
It is commonly used for cleanup tasks like closing files or database
connections.

Example 1: Multiple except blocks

try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input! Please enter a number.")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
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2.Handling Multiple Exceptions

In Python, you can handle multiple exceptions using different approaches:

1. Using Multiple except Blocks

You can catch specific exceptions separately by defining multiple except blocks.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input! Please enter a valid number.")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")

2. Using a Single except Block with Multiple Exceptions

You can handle multiple exceptions in a single block using a tuple.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except (ValueError, ZeroDivisionError) as e:
print(f"Error: {e}")

3. Using a Generic except Block

Catching all exceptions using except Exception can be useful in some cases but
should be used carefully.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except Exception as e:
print(f"An error occurred: {e}")
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4. Using finally with Multiple Exceptions

The finally block always executes, whether an exception occurs or not.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except (ValueError, ZeroDivisionError) as e:
print(f"Error: {e}")
finally:
print("Execution completed!")

5. Using else with try-except

The else block runs only if no exception occurs.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except (ValueError, ZeroDivisionError) as e:
print(f"Error: {e}")
else:
print(f"Result: {result}")
finally:
print("Execution completed!")

3.Raising Custom Exceptions

In Python, you can raise custom exceptions by defining your own exception
classes. This is useful when you need to handle specific error cases in a more
descriptive and structured way.
Steps to Raise Custom Exceptions:
1. Define a Custom Exception Class
Inherit from Exception or a built-in exception class like ValueError.
Optionally, define an __init__ method to customize the exception.
2. Raise the Custom Exception
Use the raise keyword when an error condition is met.
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Example:
# Define a custom exception
class CustomError(Exception):
def __init__(self, message):
self.message = message
super().__init__(self.message)

# Function using custom exception

def check_value(x):
if x < 0:
raise CustomError("Value cannot be negative")
return f"Valid value: {x}"

# Testing the function

try:
print(check_value(-5))
except CustomError as e:
print(f"Caught an error: {e}")

Output:
Caught an error: Value cannot be negative

Why Use Custom Exceptions?

Provides clearer error messages specific to your application.
Makes debugging easier by categorizing errors.
Helps in maintaining clean code by avoiding generic exceptions like
Exception.
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Chapter 12
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

1.Classes and Objects

In Python, you can raise custom exceptions by defining your own exception
classes. This is useful when you need to handle specific error cases in a more
descriptive and structured way.

Steps to Raise Custom Exceptions:

1. Define a Custom Exception Class
Inherit from Exception or a built-in exception class like ValueError.
Optionally, define an __init__ method to customize the exception.
2. Raise the Custom Exception
Use the raise keyword when an error condition is met.

Example:
# Define a custom exception
class CustomError(Exception):
def __init__(self, message):
self.message = message
super().__init__(self.message)

# Function using custom exception

def check_value(x):
if x < 0:
raise CustomError("Value cannot be negative")
return f"Valid value: {x}"

# Testing the function

try:
print(check_value(-5))
except CustomError as e:
print(f"Caught an error: {e}")
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2.Constructor (__init__) and Instance Variables

In Python, a constructor is a special method called __init__, which is
automatically invoked when a new instance of a class is created. It is used to
initialize instance variables (attributes specific to each object).

Constructor (__init__ method)

The __init__ method is called when an object is created.
It is used to assign values to instance variables.
The self parameter refers to the instance of the class.

Instance Variables
These are variables that belong to an instance of a class.
They are defined inside the constructor (__init__) using self.

Example:

class Student:
def __init__(self, name, age, course):
self.name = name # Instance variable
self.age = age # Instance variable
self.course = course # Instance variable

def display_info(self):
print(f"Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}, Course: {self.course}")

# Creating objects (instances)

student1 = Student("Hari", 21, "Python")
student2 = Student("Santhosh", 22, "Java")

# Accessing instance variables

student1.display_info() # Output: Name: Hari, Age: 21, Course: Python
student2.display_info() # Output: Name: Santhosh, Age: 22, Course: Java
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3.Methods and self

In Python, methods are functions that are associated with objects and can
operate on their data. When a method is defined inside a class, it typically takes
self as its first parameter.
What is self?
self represents the instance of the class and allows access to its attributes
and methods.
It must be explicitly included as the first parameter in instance methods.
It helps differentiate between instance variables and local variables.

Example of Methods and self

class Student:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name # Instance variable
self.age = age # Instance variable

def display_info(self): # Instance method

print(f"Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}")
# Creating an object
student1 = Student("Santhosh", 21)

# Calling the method

student1.display_info() # Output: Name: Santhosh, Age: 21

Types of Methods in Python

1. Instance Methods (Use self):

Operate on instance attributes.
Example: display_info() above.
2. Class Methods (Use cls):
Use the @classmethod decorator.
Work with class attributes, not instance attributes.
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4.Inheritance and Polymorphism

Inheritance and Polymorphism in Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
Inheritance and polymorphism are two fundamental concepts in Object-
Oriented Programming (OOP) that enhance code reusability and flexibility.

1. Inheritance
Inheritance allows a child class (subclass) to acquire properties and behaviors
(methods) from a parent class (superclass). This promotes code reuse and
hierarchical relationships between classes.

Key Points:
The child class inherits attributes and methods from the parent class.
The child class can extend or override methods from the parent class.
Helps in implementing code reusability and modular programming.
# Parent class
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def speak(self):
return "Animal makes a sound"
# Child class inheriting from Animal
class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return "Woof! Woof!"
# Child class inheriting from Animal
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
return "Meow! Meow!"
# Creating objects
dog = Dog("Buddy")
cat = Cat("Kitty")
print(dog.name, "says:", dog.speak()) # Buddy says: Woof! Woof!
print(cat.name, "says:", cat.speak()) # Kitty says: Meow! Meow!
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Types of Inheritance:
1. Single Inheritance – One child class inherits from one parent class.
2. Multiple Inheritance – A child class inherits from multiple parent classes.
3. Multilevel Inheritance – A class inherits from another class, which in turn
inherits from another class.
4. Hierarchical Inheritance – Multiple child classes inherit from the same parent
class.
5. Hybrid Inheritance – A combination of two or more types of inheritance.

2. Polymorphism
Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a
common superclass. It enables methods to have the same name but different
behaviors in different classes.
Key Points:
A single method can be implemented in different ways in different classes.
Helps in flexibility and scalability of the code.

Example (Method Overriding in Python)

class Bird:
def fly(self):
return "Birds can fly"

class Sparrow(Bird):
def fly(self):
return "Sparrows can fly fast"
class Penguin(Bird):
def fly(self):
return "Penguins cannot fly"
# Creating objects
sparrow = Sparrow()
penguin = Penguin()
print(sparrow.fly()) # Sparrows can fly fast
print(penguin.fly()) # Penguins cannot fly
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Types of Polymorphism:

1. Method Overloading – Defining multiple methods with the same name but
different parameters (Not directly supported in Python).
2. Method Overriding – Redefining a parent class method in the child class.
3. Operator Overloading – Using operators (+, -, *, etc.) with user-defined
meanings.

Example (Operator Overloading)

class Number:
def __init__(self, value):
self.value = value

def __add__(self, other):

return self.value + other.value

num1 = Number(10)
num2 = Number(20)

print(num1 + num2) # Output: 30

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5.Encapsulation and Abstraction

Encapsulation and Abstraction are two fundamental concepts of Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP) in languages like Java, Python, and C++.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the practice of bundling data (variables) and methods
(functions) that operate on the data into a single unit (class). It restricts direct
access to some of the object's components, which helps prevent accidental
modification.
🔹 Key Features of Encapsulation:
Protects data by restricting access using access modifiers (private, protected,
public).
Provides getter and setter methods to access and update private variables.
Increases data security and code maintainability.
✅ Example in Python:
class BankAccount:
def __init__(self, account_number, balance):
self.__account_number = account_number # Private variable
self.__balance = balance # Private variable

def deposit(self, amount):

if amount > 0:
self.__balance += amount
print(f"Deposited: {amount}, New Balance: {self.__balance}")

def withdraw(self, amount):

if 0 < amount <= self.__balance:
self.__balance -= amount
print(f"Withdrawn: {amount}, New Balance: {self.__balance}")
else:
print("Insufficient funds!")

def get_balance(self):
return self.__balance # Getter method
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# Usage
account = BankAccount(12345, 5000)
account.deposit(2000)
account.withdraw(3000)
print("Balance:", account.get_balance())

Abstraction
Abstraction is the process of hiding implementation details and only exposing the
essential features of an object. It helps simplify complex systems by providing a
clear interface.
🔹 Key Features of Abstraction:
Hides unnecessary details from the user.
Achieved using abstract classes and interfaces.
Improves code reusability and scalability.

Example in Python (Using Abstract Class):

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
class Vehicle(ABC): # Abstract class
@abstractmethod
def start(self):
pass # Abstract method
@abstractmethod
def stop(self):
pass # Abstract method
class Car(Vehicle):
def start(self):
print("Car is starting...")
def stop(self):
print("Car is stopping...")
# Usage
my_car = Car()
my_car.start()
my_car.stop()
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Chapter 13:
Working with Modules and Packages

1.Built-in Modules (math, random, os, etc.)

Python provides several built-in modules that offer useful functions and tools.
Here are some commonly used built-in modules:

1. math Module (Mathematical Functions)

Provides mathematical functions like square root, logarithms, trigonometric
functions, etc.
import math
print(math.sqrt(25)) # Output: 5.0
print(math.factorial(5)) # Output: 120
print(math.pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793

2. random Module (Random Number Generation)

Used for generating random numbers, selecting random choices, etc.
import random
print(random.randint(1, 10)) # Random integer between 1 and 10
print(random.choice(['apple', 'banana', 'cherry'])) # Random choice from a list
print(random.uniform(1, 5)) # Random float between 1 and 5

3. os Module (Operating System Interface)

Provides functions to interact with the operating system.
import os
print(os.name) # Name of the OS
print(os.getcwd()) # Get current working directory
os.mkdir("test_folder") # Create a new directory

4. sys Module (System-Specific Parameters and Functions)

Gives access to system-related information.
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import sys
print(sys.version) # Python version
print(sys.platform) # OS platform
sys.exit() # Exit the program

5. time Module (Time-Related Functions)

Helps in handling time-related tasks.
import time
print(time.time()) # Current time in seconds
time.sleep(2) # Pause execution for 2 seconds
print(time.ctime()) # Get current time as a string

6. datetime Module (Date and Time Functions)

Used for working with dates and times.
from datetime import datetime
now = datetime.now()
print(now) # Current date and time
print(now.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")) # Format date

7. json Module (Working with JSON Data)

Helps in encoding and decoding JSON data.
import json
data = {"name": "John", "age": 30}
json_data = json.dumps(data) # Convert to JSON string
print(json_data)
print(json.loads(json_data)) # Convert JSON string to Python dictionary

10. socket Module (Network Communication)

Used for working with network sockets.
import socket
host = socket.gethostname()
print(host) # Output: System hostname
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Creating and Importing Custom Modules

Creating and importing custom modules in Python is an essential skill for
organizing code and reusing functions across different programs. Here's a
breakdown of the process:

1. Creating a Custom Module

A module in Python is simply a file with a .py extension that contains Python
code, such as functions, classes, or variables.
Example: Creating a module (mymodule.py)
# mymodule.py
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"

def add(a, b):

return

2. Storing and Using Modules

Place the module file (mymodule.py) in the same directory as the script that
imports it.
If the module is in a different directory, modify sys.path or set the
PYTHONPATH environment variable.
Using a module from a different directory
import sys
sys.path.append("/path/to/module")

import mymodule

3. Using Built-in importlib for Dynamic Importing

import importlib

mymodule = importlib.import_module("mymodule")
print(mymodule.greet("Santhosh"))
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3.Installing and Using External Libraries (pip)

Installing and Using External Libraries in Python (pip)
Python has a vast ecosystem of third-party libraries that extend its functionality.
These libraries can be installed and managed using pip, Python’s package
manager.

1.Using Installed Libraries

Once you've installed a library using pip, you can start using it in your Python
programs by importing it. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to effectively use
installed libraries

2. Upgrading a Library
To update a package:
pip install --upgrade library_name

3. Uninstalling a Library
If you no longer need a library, uninstall it using:
import requests

response = requests.get("https://api.github.com")
print(response.status_code)

4. Virtual Environments (Recommended)

It is a good practice to use virtual environments to manage dependencies
separately for different projects.

Creating a Virtual Environment

python -m venv myenv

Activate it:
Windows: myenv\Scripts\activate
Mac/Linux: source myenv/bin/activate
Now, you can install packages inside this isolated environment.
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Chapter 14
Working with Databases (SQLite & MySQL)
1.Introduction to Databases
Introduction to Databases
A database is an organized collection of data that allows efficient storage,
retrieval, and management of information. It serves as a backbone for
applications and systems that require structured data handling, such as websites,
banking systems, and enterprise applications.
Why Use Databases?
1. Efficient Data Management – Stores and organizes large volumes of data
efficiently.
2. Data Integrity & Consistency – Ensures that stored data remains accurate and
reliable.
3. Security – Provides authentication and authorization to protect sensitive
information.
4. Concurrency Control – Supports multiple users accessing data
simultaneously.
5. Data Recovery – Allows data backup and restoration in case of failure.

Types of Databases

1. Relational Databases (RDBMS)

Uses tables with rows and columns to store data.
Follows Structured Query Language (SQL).
Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, SQL Server.
2. NoSQL Databases
Suitable for unstructured or semi-structured data.
Does not rely on traditional tables; uses key-value pairs, documents, or
graphs.
Examples: MongoDB, Cassandra, Redis, Neo4j.
3. Cloud Databases
Hosted on cloud platforms for scalability and availability.
Examples: AWS RDS, Google Cloud Firestore, Azure SQL Database.
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4.Time-Series Databases
Specially designed for tracking changes over time.
Examples: InfluxDB, TimescaleDB.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A DBMS is software that allows users to create, manage, and interact with
databases.
Examples: MySQL, MongoDB, SQLite, Firebase.
Functions of DBMS:
Data Storage, Retrieval, and Management
Multi-user Access
Security and Backup
Data Integrity Enforcement
Basic Database Operations
CREATE – Creating tables and defining structures.
READ – Retrieving data using queries.
UPDATE – Modifying existing data.
DELETE – Removing unnecessary records.

2.Connecting to SQLite/MySQL
Connecting to SQLite and MySQL in Python
1. Connecting to SQLite
SQLite is a lightweight database that doesn’t require a separate server. You can
use the sqlite3 module in Python.
Steps to Connect to SQLite:
import sqlite3
# Connect to database (or create it if it doesn’t exist)
conn = sqlite3.connect('my_database.db')
# Create a cursor object to execute SQL commands
cursor = conn.cursor()
# Example: Creating a table
cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
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name TEXT NOT NULL,

age INTEGER)'''
# Commit changes and close the connection
conn.commit()
conn.close()

2. Connecting to MySQL
To connect to MySQL, you need the mysql-connector-python package. Install it if
you haven’t:

Steps to Connect to MySQL:

import mysql.connector

# Connect to MySQL server

conn = mysql.connector.connect(
host="your_host", # Example: "localhost"
user="your_user", # Example: "root"
password="your_pass", # Your MySQL password
database="your_db" # Your database name
)

# Create a cursor object

cursor = conn.cursor()

# Example: Creating a table

cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
age INT)''')

# Commit changes and close the connection

conn.commit()
conn.close()
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4.Using sqlite3 and mysql-connector-python

if you want to use both sqlite3 and mysql-connector-python in the same Python
project, you can follow this guide.

Installing Required Packages

Ensure you have the necessary libraries installed:
pip install mysql-connector-python

Using SQLite3 in Python

Connecting to an SQLite Database
import sqlite3
# Connect to SQLite database (creates a file if it doesn't exist)
conn = sqlite3.connect("my_database.db")
cursor = conn.cursor()
# Create a table
cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
name TEXT, age INTEGER)''')
# Insert data
cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (?, ?)", ("Alice", 25))
# Commit and close
conn.commit()
conn.close()

Using MySQL Connector in Python

Connecting to a MySQL Database
import mysql.connector

# Connect to MySQL server

conn = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="your_username",
password="your_password",
database="your_database"
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cursor = conn.cursor()
# Create a table
cursor.execute('''CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (id INT AUTO_INCREMENT
PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(255), age INT)''')
# Insert data
cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (%s, %s)", ("Bob", 30))
# Commit and close
conn.commit()
conn.close()

Migrating Data from SQLite to MySQL

If you want to transfer data from an SQLite database to a MySQL database:
import sqlite3
import mysql.connector
# Connect to SQLite
sqlite_conn = sqlite3.connect("my_database.db")
sqlite_cursor = sqlite_conn.cursor()
# Connect to MySQL
mysql_conn = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="your_username",
password="your_password",
database="your_database"
mysql_cursor = mysql_conn.cursor()
# Fetch all data from SQLite
sqlite_cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM users")
rows = sqlite_cursor.fetchall()
# Insert data into MySQL
for row in rows:
mysql_cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (id, name, age) VALUES (%s, %s,
%s)", row)
# Commit and close connections
mysql_conn.commit()
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Chapter 15
Web Scraping with Python
1.Introduction to Web Scraping
Introduction to Web Scraping
Web scraping is the process of extracting data from websites using automated
scripts or programs. It enables users to collect, analyze, and store data from the
web efficiently. Web scraping is widely used in industries such as e-commerce,
finance, research, and marketing.
Why Use Web Scraping?
1. Data Collection – Automates the retrieval of large volumes of data.
2. Market Research – Gathers competitor prices, product details, and customer
reviews.
3. Lead Generation – Extracts contact information from business directories.
4. Sentiment Analysis – Collects user feedback from social media and reviews.
5. News Aggregation – Compiles articles from multiple sources.

How Web Scraping Works

1. Send a Request – The scraper sends an HTTP request to the target website.
2. Retrieve the HTML – The website returns the page's HTML content.
3. Parse the Data – The scraper extracts useful data from the HTML using parsing
libraries.
4. Store the Data – The extracted data is saved in formats like CSV, JSON, or
databases.

Common Web Scraping Tools & Libraries

Python
BeautifulSoup – Parses HTML/XML data easily.
Scrapy – A full-fledged web scraping framework.
Selenium – Automates browser interactions for dynamic pages.
Requests – Sends HTTP requests to web pages.
Other Tools
Puppeteer – A headless browser tool for JavaScript-based scraping.
Octoparse – A no-code visual scraping tool.
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Ethical Considerations & Legal Issues

Respect Robots.txt – Websites specify scraping rules in robots.txt.
Avoid Overloading Servers – Limit requests to prevent server crashes.
No Personal Data Scraping – Comply with GDPR and other data protection
laws.
Obtain Permission – Some websites require legal consent for scraping.

2.Using requests to Fetch Web Pages

Using the requests library in Python, you can fetch web pages easily. Below is a
simple guide:
1. Install requests
If you haven't already, install it using:
pip install requests

2. Handling Errors Gracefully

It’s good practice to handle errors:
response = requests.get(url, timeout=5) # Set a timeout
response.raise_for_status() # Raises an error for HTTP errors (4xx and 5xx)
print("Page Content:", response.text)
except requests.exceptions.RequestException as e:
print("Error:", e)

5. Fetching JSON Data

If the page returns JSON data:
response = requests.get("https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1")
data = response.json() # Convert to Python dictionary
print(data)

6. Passing Parameters
For URLs that require query parameters:
params = {"q": "Python", "sort": "recent"}
response = requests.get("https://example.com/search", params=params)
print(response.url) # Shows the final URL with parameters
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3.Parsing HTML with BeautifulSoup

Parsing HTML with BeautifulSoup is a common technique in web scraping and
data extraction from web pages. BeautifulSoup is a Python library that allows
you to parse HTML and XML documents easily.

Basic Usage
1. Import Required Libraries
from bs4 import BeautifulSoup
import requests

2. Fetching and Parsing HTML

url = "https://example.com"
response = requests.get(url)

# Create a BeautifulSoup object

soup = BeautifulSoup(response.text, "html.parser")

Finding Elements in HTML

1. Finding by Tag Name

title = soup.title # Gets the <title> tag
print(title.text) # Prints the text inside <title>

2. Finding by ID
element = soup.find(id="main-content")
print(element)

3. Finding by Class Name

elements = soup.find_all(class_="article")
for element in elements:
print(element.text)
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Navigating HTML Elements

1. Parent and Child Elements
parent = soup.find("p").parent # Gets the parent element of <p>
children = soup.body.find_all("div") # Finds all <div> inside <body>

2. Next and Previous Elements

next_sibling = soup.find("h2").find_next_sibling()
prev_sibling = soup.find("h2").find_previous_sibling()

Extracting Text and Attributes

text = soup.get_text() # Gets all text from HTML
print(text)

first_link = soup.find("a")
print(first_link["href"]) # Extracts the href attribute

Advanced Searching with CSS Selectors

headings = soup.select("h1, h2, h3") # Selects all <h1>, <h2>, <h3>
specific = soup.select_one(".main-class") # Selects first element with
class="main-class"

Example: Scraping a Website

url = "https://news.ycombinator.com/"
response = requests.get(url)
soup = BeautifulSoup(response.text, "html.parser")

# Extract all headlines

headlines = soup.find_all("a", class_="storylink")

for headline in headlines:

print(headline.text)
print(headline["href"])
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4.Extracting Data and Saving Results

Extracting data and saving results can involve multiple approaches, depending
on the source of the data and the desired format for storage. Here’s a general
workflow:
1. Identify the Data Source
Web Scraping: Extract data from websites using tools like BeautifulSoup,
Scrapy, or Selenium.
APIs: Use requests to fetch data from web APIs (requests, http.client).
Databases: Query data from SQL or NoSQL databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL,
MongoDB).
Local Files: Read from CSV, JSON, Excel, or text files (pandas, openpyxl).
2. Extract Data
Web Scraping Example (using BeautifulSoup):
import requests
from bs4 import BeautifulSoup

url = "https://example.com"
response = requests.get(url)
soup = BeautifulSoup(response.text, 'html.parser')

data = soup.find_all("p") # Extracting paragraph texts

extracted_data = [p.text for p in data]

3. Save the Extracted Data

Save to CSV:
import pandas as pd

df = pd.DataFrame(data)
df.to_csv("output.csv", index=False)

Save to a Database:
cursor.execute("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (%s, %s)", ("John", 30))
connection.commit()
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Chapter 16
Data Visualization with Matplotlib and Seaborn

1.Introduction to matplotlib
Introduction to Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a popular Python library used for data visualization. It provides a
wide variety of plotting options to create high-quality static, animated, and
interactive graphs.

Why Use Matplotlib?

Simple to use and highly customizable.
Works well with other Python libraries like NumPy and Pandas.
Supports various plot types, such as line plots, bar charts, histograms,
scatter plots, and more.
Allows exporting graphs in different formats (PNG, PDF, SVG, etc.).
Interactive features like zooming and panning.

Creating a Simple Line Plot

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
y = [10, 20, 25, 30, 50]

plt.plot(x, y, marker='o', linestyle='-', color='b', label="Line 1")

plt.xlabel("X-axis")
plt.ylabel("Y-axis")
plt.title("Simple Line Plot")
plt.legend()
plt.show()

Common Types of Plots

1.Line Plot:
plt.plot(x, y)
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2.Plotting Line, Bar, and Scatter Plots

Here’s a simple Python script using Matplotlib to plot line, bar, and scatter
plots:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
# Sample data
x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
y = np.array([10, 20, 15, 25, 30])
# Create a figure with subplots
fig, axs = plt.subplots(1, 3, figsize=(15, 5))
# Line plot
axs[0].plot(x, y, marker='o', linestyle='-', color='b', label='Line Plot')
axs[0].set_title('Line Plot')
axs[0].set_xlabel('X-axis')
axs[0].set_ylabel('Y-axis')
axs[0].legend()
# Bar plot
axs[1].bar(x, y, color='g', label='Bar Plot')
axs[1].set_title('Bar Plot')
axs[1].set_xlabel('X-axis')
axs[1].set_ylabel('Y-axis')
axs[1].legend()
# Scatter plot
axs[2].scatter(x, y, color='r', label='Scatter Plot')
axs[2].set_title('Scatter Plot')
axs[2].set_xlabel('X-axis')
axs[2].set_ylabel('Y-axis')
axs[2].legend()
# Show the plots
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
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Explanation:
Line Plot: Uses plot() with markers and a line connecting the points.
Bar Plot: Uses bar() to create vertical bars.
Scatter Plot: Uses scatter() to plot individual points.

3.Styling Graphs and Adding Labels

Styling graphs and adding labels make data visualization more effective and
visually appealing. Here’s how you can enhance your graphs using Python’s
Matplotlib library:

1. Adding Labels and Titles

plt.xlabel(): Adds a label to the x-axis.
plt.ylabel(): Adds a label to the y-axis.
plt.title(): Sets the title of the graph.
plt.legend(): Adds a legend to distinguish different data series.

2. Customizing the Appearance

Colors: You can use colors like 'red', 'blue', or hex codes like #ff5733.
Line Styles: '-' (solid), '--' (dashed), ':' (dotted), etc.
Markers: 'o' (circle), 's' (square), '^' (triangle), etc.

3. Changing Font Styles

You can modify font properties using:
plt.xlabel("X-Axis Label", fontsize=12, fontweight='bold', color='blue')
plt.ylabel("Y-Axis Label", fontsize=12, fontstyle='italic', color='green')
plt.title("Graph Title", fontsize=14, fontweight='bold', color='purple')
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4.Using seaborn for Advanced Visualization

Seaborn is a powerful Python library for statistical data visualization, built on
top of Matplotlib. It provides advanced visualization capabilities with simple
and intuitive syntax.

1. Why Use Seaborn for Advanced Visualization?

Enhances Matplotlib’s capabilities with more aesthetic and informative
visualizations.
Built-in themes and color palettes for better visual appeal.
Simplifies the creation of complex plots.
Supports Pandas DataFrames for direct visualization of datasets.

2. Advanced Visualizations with Seaborn

A. Heatmaps (Visualizing Correlations)
Heatmaps are useful for visualizing correlations and relationships between
numerical variables.
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import pandas as pd

# Sample Data
data = pd.DataFrame({
'A': [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
'B': [2, 3, 4, 5, 6],
'C': [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
})

# Compute correlation matrix

corr = data.corr()
# Create heatmap
sns.heatmap(corr, annot=True, cmap='coolwarm', linewidths=0.5)
plt.title("Correlation Heatmap")
plt.show()
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B. Regression Plot (Visualizing Trends)

Regression plots show the relationship between two variables along with a
regression line.
# Load example dataset
tips = sns.load_dataset("tips")

# Regression plot
sns.lmplot(x="total_bill", y="tip", data=tips, hue="sex", markers=["o", "s"])
plt.title("Regression Plot of Total Bill vs Tip")
plt.show()

C.Time Series Plots

Seaborn can handle time-series data effectively.
# Load example time-series dataset
flights = sns.load_dataset("flights")

# Convert to pivot table

flights_pivot = flights.pivot("month", "year", "passengers")

# Create a heatmap for time-series data

sns.heatmap(flights_pivot, cmap="coolwarm", annot=True, fmt="d")
plt.title("Heatmap of Flight Passengers Over Time")
plt.show()

3. Customizing Seaborn Plots

A. Changing Themes
Seaborn comes with built-in themes:
sns.set_theme(style="darkgrid") # Options: darkgrid, whitegrid, dark, white,
ticks

B. Custom Color Palettes

sns.set_palette("pastel") # Other options: deep, muted, bright, dark, colorblind
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4. Combining Multiple Plots with Seaborn

You can use Seaborn with matplotlib to create subplots.
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(12, 5))

sns.boxplot(x="species", y="sepal_length", data=df, ax=axes[0])

axes[0].set_title("Box Plot")

sns.violinplot(x="species", y="sepal_length", data=df, ax=axes[1])

axes[1].set_title("Violin Plot")

plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
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Chapter 17
Machine Learning Basics

1.Introduction to Machine Learning

Machine Learning (ML) is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that enables
computers to learn from data and make decisions or predictions without being
explicitly programmed. It focuses on developing algorithms that can identify
patterns, adapt to new data, and improve performance over time.

Why Machine Learning?

Automation: Reduces human effort in repetitive tasks.
Pattern Recognition: Identifies hidden insights from large datasets.
Improved Decision-Making: Supports businesses, healthcare, and finance.
Scalability: Handles complex problems efficiently.
Types of Machine Learning
1. Supervised Learning
The model learns from labeled data.
Examples: Spam detection, fraud detection, medical diagnosis.
Algorithms: Linear Regression, Decision Trees, Random Forest, Neural
Networks.
2. Unsupervised Learning
The model identifies patterns in unlabeled data.
Examples: Customer segmentation, anomaly detection.
Algorithms: Clustering (K-Means, DBSCAN), Dimensionality Reduction
(PCA).
3. Reinforcement Learning
The model learns by interacting with an environment.
Examples: Self-driving cars, game AI.
Algorithms: Q-Learning, Deep Q Networks (DQN).
Key Components of Machine Learning
Dataset: Collection of data used to train the model.
Features: Characteristics used for making predictions.
Algorithm: The method used to train the model.
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Training & Testing: Evaluating model performance.

Evaluation Metrics: Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1-score.
Applications of Machine Learning
Healthcare: Disease prediction, medical imaging.
Finance: Credit scoring, fraud detection.
E-commerce: Recommendation systems, customer behavior analysis.
Autonomous Vehicles: Object detection, navigation.
Cybersecurity: Threat detection, anomaly detection.

2.Using scikit-learn for ML Models

Scikit-learn is a powerful machine learning (ML) library in Python that provides
tools for building and deploying ML models efficiently. Below is an overview of
using scikit-learn for different ML tasks:
1. Installing Scikit-learn
pip install scikit-learn

2. Basic Workflow in Scikit-learn

The typical workflow for using scikit-learn includes:
1. Importing necessary libraries
2. Loading or generating a dataset
3. Splitting the dataset into training and testing sets
4. Selecting and training a model
5. Making predictions
6. Evaluating model performance

2. Basic Workflow in Scikit-learn

The typical workflow for using scikit-learn includes:
1. Importing necessary libraries
2. Loading or generating a dataset
3. Splitting the dataset into training and testing sets
4. Selecting and training a model
5. Making predictions
6. Evaluating model performance
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3. Example: Training a Classification Model

Here’s an example using the Iris dataset and a Support Vector Machine (SVM)
classifier:
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn import datasets
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
from sklearn.svm import SVC
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score

# Load dataset
iris = datasets.load_iris()
X, y = iris.data, iris.target

# Split into training and testing sets

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2,
random_state=42)

# Feature scaling (optional but recommended for SVM)

scaler = StandardScaler()
X_train = scaler.fit_transform(X_train)
X_test = scaler.transform(X_test)

# Train the model

model = SVC(kernel='linear') # Using a linear kernel
model.fit(X_train, y_train)

# Make predictions
y_pred = model.predict(X_test)
# Evaluate performance
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
print(f"Accuracy: {accuracy:.2f}")
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4. Example: Training a Regression Model

Let’s use a Linear Regression model on the Boston Housing dataset:
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error

# Load dataset
boston = datasets.load_boston()
X, y = boston.data, boston.target

# Split dataset
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2,
random_state=42)

# Train model
regressor = LinearRegression()
regressor.fit(X_train, y_train)

# Predict
y_pred = regressor.predict(X_test)

# Evaluate
mse = mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred)
print(f"Mean Squared Error: {mse:.2f}")

5. Commonly Used Scikit-learn Algorithms

Classification: Logistic Regression, SVM, Decision Trees, Random Forest,
Naive Bayes, K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
Regression: Linear Regression, Ridge Regression, Lasso Regression,
Decision Trees, Random Forest
Clustering: K-Means, DBSCAN, Agglomerative Clustering
Dimensionality Reduction: PCA, t-SNE
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3.Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning.

1. Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is a type of machine learning where the model is trained
using labeled data. This means the input data has corresponding output labels,
and the model learns the relationship between them.

✅ Key Features:
Uses labeled data (input-output pairs).
The goal is to map inputs to correct outputs.
Requires human intervention for data labeling.
Common algorithms: Linear Regression, Logistic Regression, Decision
Trees, Random Forest, Support Vector Machines (SVM), Neural Networks.
✅ Examples:
Spam detection: Classify emails as "spam" or "not spam."
Fraud detection: Identify fraudulent transactions in banking.
Medical diagnosis: Predict disease based on patient data.

2. Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning where the model is trained
on unlabeled data and finds hidden patterns without explicit guidance.
✅ Key Features:
Uses unlabeled data (no predefined output).
The goal is to discover hidden patterns and relationships in data.
No human intervention is needed for labeling.
Common algorithms: K-Means Clustering, Hierarchical Clustering, Principal
Component Analysis (PCA), Autoencoders, DBSCAN.
✅ Examples:
Customer segmentation: Grouping customers based on purchasing
behavior.
Anomaly detection: Identifying unusual network activity for cybersecurity.
Recommendation systems: Suggesting similar movies or products (e.g.,
Netflix, Amazon).
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4..Basic Model Training and Evaluation

Model training and evaluation are fundamental steps in machine learning.
Here’s a breakdown of the basic process:
1. Data Preparation
Before training a model, you need to prepare the dataset:
Collect Data: Gather relevant data for the problem.
Preprocess Data: Handle missing values, normalize/scale numerical
features, and encode categorical features.
Split Data: Divide the dataset into:
Training Set (typically 70-80%): Used to train the model.
Validation Set (optional, 10-15%): Used to tune hyperparameters.
Test Set (10-20%): Used for final evaluation.
2. Model Training
This step involves choosing and training a model:
Select a Model: Choose an algorithm (e.g., Linear Regression, Decision
Trees, Neural Networks).
Train the Model: Fit the model on the training data.
Tune Hyperparameters: Optimize parameters using techniques like Grid
Search or Random Search.

Example in Python (using sklearn):

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.datasets import load_iris

# Load dataset
data = load_iris()
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(data.data, data.target,
test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

# Train model
model = LogisticRegression(max_iter=200)
model.fit(X_train, y_train)
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4..Basic Model Training and Evaluation

Model training and evaluation are fundamental steps in machine learning.
Here’s a breakdown of the basic process:
1. Data Preparation
Before training a model, you need to prepare the dataset:
Collect Data: Gather relevant data for the problem.
Preprocess Data: Handle missing values, normalize/scale numerical
features, and encode categorical features.
Split Data: Divide the dataset into:
Training Set (typically 70-80%): Used to train the model.
Validation Set (optional, 10-15%): Used to tune hyperparameters.
Test Set (10-20%): Used for final evaluation.
2. Model Training
This step involves choosing and training a model:
Select a Model: Choose an algorithm (e.g., Linear Regression, Decision
Trees, Neural Networks).
Train the Model: Fit the model on the training data.
Tune Hyperparameters: Optimize parameters using techniques like Grid
Search or Random Search.

Example in Python (using sklearn):

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.datasets import load_iris

# Load dataset
data = load_iris()
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(data.data, data.target,
test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

# Train model
model = LogisticRegression(max_iter=200)
model.fit(X_train, y_train)
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3. Model Evaluation
Evaluate the trained model using various metrics:
Accuracy: (Correct Predictions) / (Total Predictions)
Precision, Recall, F1-score (for classification tasks)
Mean Squared Error (MSE), R² Score (for regression tasks)
Example:
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score

# Predict on test data

y_pred = model.predict(X_test)

# Evaluate model
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
print(f"Accuracy: {accuracy:.2f}")

4. Improving the Model

If the performance is not satisfactory, consider:
Feature Engineering: Add, remove, or transform features.
Hyperparameter Tuning: Use GridSearchCV, RandomizedSearchCV.
Try Different Algorithms: Compare different models.
Increase Training Data: More data can improve performance.
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Chapter 18
Introduction to Web Development with Flask/Django

1.Understanding Web Frameworks

Understanding Web Frameworks
A web framework is a software tool that provides a structured way to develop
and deploy web applications. It simplifies web development by offering pre-
built components, reusable code, and standardized development patterns.
Types of Web Frameworks
1. Front-End Frameworks
Focus on the client side (what the user sees).
Examples:
React.js – A JavaScript library for building UI components.
Angular – A TypeScript-based framework for dynamic web applications.
Vue.js – A progressive framework known for its simplicity and flexibility.
2. Back-End Frameworks
Handle server-side logic, database interactions, and authentication.
Examples:
Django (Python) – A high-level framework with built-in security and
scalability.
Flask (Python) – A lightweight and flexible micro-framework.
Express.js (JavaScript) – A minimal and fast framework for Node.js
applications.
Spring Boot (Java) – A powerful framework for enterprise-level
applications.
3. Full-Stack Frameworks
Combine both front-end and back-end functionalities.
Examples:
Next.js (React + Node.js) – A React-based framework with server-side
rendering.
Ruby on Rails (Ruby) – A convention-over-configuration framework.
Laravel (PHP) – A modern framework for building scalable PHP
applications.
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2.Setting Up a Simple Flask/Django App

Here’s a simple guide to setting up a basic web app using Flask and Django.
Flask Setup (Lightweight Python Web Framework)
Flask is minimalistic and great for small applications and APIs.

1. Install Flask
pip install flask

2. Create a Simple Flask App

Create a file app.py and add the following:
from flask import Flask

app = Flask(__name__)

@app.route('/')
def home():
return "Hello, Flask!"

if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run(debug=True)

Django Setup (Full-Featured Web Framework)

Django is best for large-scale applications requiring authentication, ORM, and
admin dashboards.
1. Install Django
pip install django

2. Create a Django Project

django-admin startproject myproject
cd myproject

3. Start the Django Development Server

python manage.py runserver
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3.Handling Routes and Templates

Handling routes and templates is a key aspect of building web applications. If
you're working with Flask (Python), Express.js (JavaScript/Node.js), or Django
(Python), here’s how routing and templating are managed in these frameworks:

Flask (Python)
Flask uses the render_template() function to render HTML templates stored in
the templates/ folder.
Setting up Routes
from flask import Flask, render_template

app = Flask(__name__)

@app.route('/')
def home():
return render_template('index.html') # Renders index.html

@app.route('/about')
def about():
return render_template('about.html') # Renders about.html
if __name__ == '__main__':
app.run(debug=True)

Template Example (templates/index.html)

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Home Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome to Flask</h1>
</body>
</html>
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Express.js (Node.js)
Express uses the res.render() function along with Pug, EJS, or Handlebars as
the templating engine.
Setting up Express Routes
const express = require('express');
const app = express();

app.set('view engine', 'ejs'); // Using EJS for templates

app.set('views', './views'); // Templates stored in 'views' folder

app.get('/', (req, res) => {

res.render('index', { title: 'Home Page' });
});

app.get('/about', (req, res) => {

res.render('about', { title: 'About Page' });
});

app.listen(3000, () => {
console.log("Server running on port 3000");
});

Django (Python)
Django follows the MTV (Model-Template-View) pattern.
Setting up Django Routes
In views.py:
from django.shortcuts import render

def home(request):
return render(request, 'index.html')

def about(request):
return render(request, 'about.html')
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4.Working with Forms and Databases

Working with forms and databases is a fundamental part of web development,
allowing users to input and store data efficiently. Here's an overview of how it
works:

1. Creating a Form
A form is used to collect user input. This is typically done using HTML.
Example (HTML Form):
<form action="process.php" method="POST">
<label for="name">Name:</label>
<input type="text" id="name" name="name" required>

<label for="email">Email:</label>
<input type="email" id="email" name="email" required>

<button type="submit">Submit</button>
</form>

2. Handling Form Submission

When the user submits the form, the data is sent to the backend (e.g., PHP,
Python, Node.js).
Example (PHP Backend):
<?php
if ($_SERVER["REQUEST_METHOD"] == "POST") {
$name = $_POST["name"];
$email = $_POST["email"];

// Database connection
$conn = new mysqli("localhost", "root", "", "mydatabase");

if ($conn->connect_error) {
die("Connection failed: " . $conn->connect_error);
}
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$sql = "INSERT INTO users (name, email) VALUES ('$name', '$email')";

if ($conn->query($sql) === TRUE) {

echo "Record added successfully!";
} else {
echo "Error: " . $sql . "<br>" . $conn->error;
}

$conn->close();
}
?>

3. Fetching and Displaying Data

You can retrieve data from the database and display it on a webpage.
Example (PHP Fetch Data):
$conn = new mysqli("localhost", "root", "", "mydatabase");

$sql = "SELECT * FROM users";

$result = $conn->query($sql);

while ($row = $result->fetch_assoc()) {

echo "Name: " . $row["name"] . " - Email: " . $row["email"] . "<br>";
}

$conn->close();

4. Securing Your Form (Validation & Security)

Use prepared statements to prevent SQL injection.
Validate user input (e.g., check for valid email format).
Use server-side and client-side validation to improve security.
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Chapter 19
Testing and Debugging in Python

1.Writing Unit Tests with unittest

Unit testing is essential for ensuring the reliability of your code. In Python, the
built-in unittest module provides a framework for writing and running unit
tests. Below is a step-by-step guide on writing unit tests using unittest.

1. Importing unittest
The unittest module is included in Python’s standard library, so no extra
installation is needed.
import unittest

2. Creating a Sample Function to Test

Let's say we have a simple function in math_operations.py that performs basic
arithmetic:
# math_operations.py
def add(x, y):
return x + y

def subtract(x, y):

return x - y

def multiply(x, y):

return x * y

def divide(x, y):

if y == 0:
raise ValueError("Cannot divide by zero")
return x / y
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3. Writing Unit Tests

We create a separate test file, e.g., test_math_operations.py, to test the
functions:
import unittest
from math_operations import add, subtract, multiply, divide

class TestMathOperations(unittest.TestCase):

def test_add(self):
self.assertEqual(add(3, 5), 8)
self.assertEqual(add(-1, 1), 0)
self.assertEqual(add(0, 0), 0)

def test_subtract(self):
self.assertEqual(subtract(10, 5), 5)
self.assertEqual(subtract(-1, -1), 0)
self.assertEqual(subtract(0, 5), -5)

def test_multiply(self):
self.assertEqual(multiply(2, 3), 6)
self.assertEqual(multiply(-2, 3), -6)
self.assertEqual(multiply(0, 5), 0)

def test_divide(self):
self.assertEqual(divide(10, 2), 5)
self.assertEqual(divide(-10, 2), -5)
self.assertRaises(ValueError, divide, 10, 0)

if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()
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2.Debugging with pdb

pdb (Python Debugger) is a built-in Python module used for debugging code by
allowing you to set breakpoints, inspect variables, and step through execution.
Basic Commands in pdb
1. Starting pdb
Run a script with pdb:
python -m pdb script.py

2.Navigation Commands
c (continue) → Resume execution until the next breakpoint.
n (next) → Execute the next line of code.
s (step) → Step into function calls.
q (quit) → Exit the debugger.
r (return) → Run until the function returns.

3.Variable Inspection
p var → Print the value of var.
pp var → Pretty-print var (useful for dictionaries/lists).
whos → List all variables in scope.

4.Breakpoints
b 10 → Set a breakpoint at line 10.
b my_function → Break at the start of my_function.
cl → Clear all breakpoints.

5.Stack Navigation
l → List source code around the current line.
w → Show the current stack frame.
up / down → Move up/down the call stack.
Example Debugging Session
def add(a, b):
result = a + b
return result
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def main():
x, y = 5, 10
import pdb; pdb.set_trace() # Breakpoint
sum_result = add(x, y)
print(f"Sum: {sum_result}")

if __name__ == "__main__":
main()

3.Common Python Errors and Fixes

Here are some common Python errors and their fixes:

1. SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Cause: This occurs when Python encounters incorrect syntax.
Fix:
print("Hello, World!") # Use parentheses in Python 3

2. NameError: name 'x' is not defined

Cause: Trying to use a variable before defining it.
print(x) # x is not defined before use
Fix:
x = 10
print(x)

3. TypeError: unsupported operand type(s)

Cause: Occurs when incompatible data types are used together.
num = 5
text = "hello"
print(num + text) # Cannot add int and str
Fix:
print(str(num) + text) # Convert int to string before concatenation
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4. IndexError: list index out of range

Cause: Accessing an index that does not exist in the list.
my_list = [1, 2, 3]
print(my_list[5]) # Index 5 is out of range
Fix:
if len(my_list) > 5:
print(my_list[5])
else:
print("Index out of range")

5. KeyError: 'key'
Cause: Trying to access a key in a dictionary that doesn't exist.
data = {"name": "Alice"}
print(data["age"]) # 'age' key is missing
Fix:
print(data.get("age", "Key not found")) # Use .get() method with default value

6. AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Cause: Trying to access an attribute on a None object.
x = None
print(x.upper()) # x is None, has no upper() method
Fix:
if x is not None:
print(x.upper())
else:
print("x is None")
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Chapter 20
Advanced Python Concepts
1.Decorators and Generators
Decorators and Generators in Python
Both decorators and generators are advanced Python features that help in
making code more readable, efficient, and reusable. Let's go through each
concept in detail.

1. Generators
Generators are special types of iterators that allow you to iterate over data
without storing the entire dataset in memory. They are defined using the yield
keyword.
Why Use Generators?
Memory Efficient: They generate values on the fly instead of storing
everything in memory.
Lazy Evaluation: They compute values as needed, making them useful for
large datasets.
State Retention: Unlike normal functions, generators retain their state
between function calls.

Example: A Simple Generator

def count_up_to(n):
count = 1
while count <= n:
yield count # Produces a value and pauses execution
count += 1

gen = count_up_to(5)
print(next(gen)) # Output: 1
print(next(gen)) # Output: 2
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Generator Expression (Like List Comprehension)

You can create generators using generator expressions, similar to list

comprehensions but with parentheses () instead of [].
squares = (x * x for x in range(5))
print(next(squares)) # Output: 0
print(next(squares)) # Output: 1

2. Decorators
A decorator is a function that takes another function as input and extends its
functionality without modifying its actual code.
Why Use Decorators?
Code Reusability: Helps avoid redundant code.
Separation of Concerns: Keeps logic separate from enhancements.
Useful for Logging, Authorization, Timing Functions, etc.

Basic Decorator Example

def decorator_func(original_func):
def wrapper():
print("Wrapper executed before", original_func.__name__)
return original_func()
return wrapper

@decorator_func # Applying the decorator

def say_hello():
print("Hello!")

say_hello()

Output:
Wrapper executed before say_hello
Hello!
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2.Multi-threading and Parallel Processing

Multi-threading vs. Parallel Processing

Both multi-threading and parallel processing are techniques used to improve
the performance of applications by executing multiple tasks simultaneously.
However, they serve different purposes and work in different ways.
1. Multi-threading
Multi-threading is a programming technique that allows multiple threads
(smaller units of a process) to execute concurrently within a single process. It
is mainly used to achieve concurrency, not necessarily parallel execution.
Key Characteristics:
Multiple threads share the same memory space.
Useful for I/O-bound tasks (e.g., downloading files, web scraping, GUI
applications).
Uses context switching, meaning that only one thread executes at a time in
single-core CPUs.
Threads communicate via shared memory.
Example Use Cases:
Web browsers (handling multiple tabs)
GUI applications (keeping UI responsive while processing)
Asynchronous I/O operations (reading files, sending requests)

Example (Python Multi-threading)

import threading

def print_numbers():
for i in range(5):
print(i)

# Creating two threads

thread1 = threading.Thread(target=print_numbers)
thread2 = threading.Thread(target=print_numbers)
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# Starting threads
thread1.start()
thread2.start()
# Waiting for threads to finish
thread1.join()
thread2.join()
print("Threads finished execution")

2. Parallel Processing
Parallel processing involves dividing a task into smaller subtasks and executing
them simultaneously on multiple CPU cores or even multiple machines. It is
primarily used for CPU-bound tasks.
Key Characteristics:
True parallel execution on multi-core processors.
Independent processes (not just threads) with separate memory spaces.
Best suited for CPU-intensive tasks like scientific computations, AI model
training, and large data processing.
Example Use Cases:
Machine learning model training
Large-scale data processing (Pandas, NumPy)
Scientific simulations

Example
(Python Multiprocessing)
import multiprocessing
def square(n):
return n * n

if __name__ == "__main__":
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
with multiprocessing.Pool(processes=2) as pool:
results = pool.map(square, numbers)
print("Squared numbers:", results)
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3.Working with Virtual Environments

Working with virtual environments is essential in Python development, as it
helps isolate dependencies and avoid conflicts between different projects.
Here’s a quick guide:

1. Creating a Virtual Environment

To create a virtual environment, use the following command:
python -m venv myenv

2. Activating the Virtual Environment

On Windows
myenv\Scripts\activate

On macOS/Linux:
source myenv/bin/activate

3. Installing Packages
Once the virtual environment is activated, you can install packages using pip:
pip install package_name
For example:
pip install numpy pandas

4. Deactivating the Virtual Environment

To exit the virtual environment, simply run:
deactivate

5. Removing the Virtual Environment

If you want to delete the environment, deactivate it first and then remove the
directory:
rm -rf myenv # macOS/Linux
rd /s /q myenv # Windows (Command Prompt)
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4.Understanding Python’s Memory Management

Understanding Python’s Memory Management
Python's memory management is a crucial aspect of how the language handles
variables, objects, and memory allocation. It ensures efficient use of memory
through automatic garbage collection and dynamic memory allocation.
1. Memory Management in Python
Python uses dynamic memory allocation, meaning memory is allocated to
variables and objects at runtime. The Python memory manager handles:
Object allocation and deallocation
Memory reuse
Garbage collection (GC)

2. Memory Allocation in Python

Python's memory allocation is divided into three main parts:
a) Stack Memory
Stores function calls, local variables, and control flow.
Memory is allocated and deallocated automatically when functions
execute.
Works in a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) manner
b) Heap Memory
Stores objects and dynamically allocated variables.
Managed by Python’s built-in memory manager.
Objects are referenced using pointers.
c) Python Memory Pool (Private Heap)
Python maintains a private heap for memory management.
The PyMalloc allocator manages small objects.
Large objects are directly handled by the system’s memory allocator.
3. Garbage Collection in Python
Python automatically frees memory that is no longer in use using Garbage
Collection (GC). It uses:
Reference Counting: Each object has a reference count, and when it
reaches zero, the memory is freed.
Cyclic Garbage Collection: Detects and removes cyclic references where
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objects reference each other.

Manually Triggering Garbage Collection
You can manually run garbage collection using:
import gc
gc.collect() # Force garbage collection
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Chapter 21
Python Project Ideas and Best Practices

1.Best Coding Practices and Style Guide (PEP 8)

Best Coding Practices and Style Guide (PEP 8)
PEP 8 (Python Enhancement Proposal 8) is the official style guide for writing
Python code. Following PEP 8 ensures code readability, maintainability, and
consistency across projects. Below are the key principles of PEP 8 and other
best coding practices.

1. Code Layout & Formatting

Indentation
Use 4 spaces per indentation level.
Do not use tabs (use spaces instead).
def function():
if True:
print("Follow PEP 8")

Maximum Line Length

Keep lines ≤ 79 characters (for general code).
Keep docstrings and comments ≤ 72 characters.
Blank Lines
Use two blank lines between top-level functions and classes.
Use one blank line inside a class between methods.
class MyClass:

def method_one(self):
pass

def method_two(self):
pass
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2.Project Ideas for Beginners, Intermediate, and Advanced Levels

Here are some project ideas categorized by skill level:
Beginner Level
Ideal for those who are just starting and want to practice basic programming
skills.
1. To-Do List App – A simple task manager with CRUD operations.
2. Calculator – A basic arithmetic calculator with a GUI.
3. Weather App – Fetch weather data from an API and display it.
4. Number Guessing Game – A fun terminal-based guessing game.
5. Digital Clock – A real-time clock using Python Tkinter or JavaScript.
6. Unit Converter – Convert temperature, weight, or currency.
7. Personal Portfolio Website – Showcase your skills and projects.
8. Simple Blog – Allow users to write, edit, and delete posts.
9. Random Password Generator – Generate strong passwords.
10.Notes App – Save and retrieve short notes with a simple UI.
Intermediate Level
For those who have some experience and want to build more interactive
applications.
1. Expense Tracker – Track daily expenses and generate reports.
2. E-commerce Website – Basic cart functionality using HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, and backend tech.
3. Chat Application – Real-time messaging using WebSockets.
4. Library Management System – Manage books, borrowers, and returns.
5. Quiz App – A multiple-choice quiz with a leaderboard.
6. Portfolio Website with CMS – A dynamic portfolio using React/Flask.
7. Social Media Dashboard – View analytics for social media engagement.
8. Image Recognition App – Identify objects in images using AI.
9. Fitness Tracker – Track workouts and diet progress.
10. Stock Price Prediction – Use machine learning to predict stock trends.
Advanced Level
For experienced developers looking for a challenge.
1. AI-Powered Chatbot – A chatbot using NLP like GPT or Rasa.
2. Face Recognition Attendance System – Detect faces for automated
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3.Blockchain-Based Voting System – Secure online voting using blockchain.

4.Automated Resume Screening System – Filter resumes using AI.
5.AI-Based Code Generator – Generate code from text descriptions.
6.Virtual Assistant (like Jarvis) – AI assistant for voice commands.
7.Self-Driving Car Simulation – Use reinforcement learning to navigate.
8.Cybersecurity Threat Detection System – Detect cyber threats using ML.
9.AI-Powered Content Generator – Generate articles based on keywords.
10.Smart Home Automation – IoT-based home automation with AI integration.

3.Contributing to Open Source and GitHub

Contributing to open-source projects on GitHub is a great way to improve your

coding skills, collaborate with developers, and build a strong portfolio. Here’s
how you can get started:
1. Understanding Open Source
Open-source software is publicly available code that anyone can use, modify,
and distribute. Popular open-source projects include Linux, React, TensorFlow,
and VS Code.
2. Setting Up GitHub
Create a GitHub account if you don’t have one.
Install Git on your system.
Configure Git with:
git config --global user.name "Your Name"
git config --global user.email "[email protected]"
3. Finding a Project to Contribute To
Explore repositories on GitHub Explore.
Use platforms like Good First Issues or Up For Grabs.
Look for projects with labels like good first issue, help wanted, or
documentation.
4. Forking and Cloning
Fork the repository (creates a copy under your GitHub account).
Clone it locally:
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9. Creating a Pull Request (PR)

Go to the original repository on GitHub.
Click New Pull Request and select your branch.
Write a clear description of your changes and submit the PR.
10. Engaging with the Community
Respond to feedback from maintainers.
Review other PRs to learn from peers.
Join discussions and contribute to issues.
Bonus Tips
Follow project guidelines (contribution guidelines, code of conduct).
Keep your fork updated with:
git fetch upstream
git merge upstream/main

4.Python Career Path: What’s Next?

Since you already have strong experience in Python, Full Stack Development,
Data Science, Cybersecurity, and AI/ML, your next steps depend on your
career goals. Here are some options you can explore based on your expertise:
🔹 Advanced Specialization
If you want to deepen your Python expertise, consider specializing in:
1. AI & Machine Learning 🧠
Learn Deep Learning (TensorFlow, PyTorch)
Work on NLP, Computer Vision, or Generative AI
Participate in Kaggle Competitions
2. Data Engineering 📊
Learn Apache Spark, Hadoop, Airflow
Work with Big Data Pipelines
Master SQL + NoSQL Databases
3. Cybersecurity with Python 🔐
Learn Ethical Hacking, Automation, and Threat Detection
Work on Penetration Testing & Security Tools
4. Automation & DevOps ⚙️
Learn Docker, Kubernetes, Terraform
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Work with CI/CD & Infrastructure as Code

🔹 Career Advancement
Since you have experience in mentorship, you can aim for leadership roles:
Senior Developer → Team Lead
Technical Architect → CTO Role (if you plan a startup)
AI/ML Engineer → Researcher/Scientist

🔹 Freelancing & Side Projects

Start freelancing on Upwork, Fiverr, Toptal
Develop your own SaaS Product or AI Tool
Contribute to Open Source Projects on GitHub

🔹 Certifications & Higher Studies

AWS Certified Solutions Architect (For Cloud Computing)
Google TensorFlow Developer Certificate (For AI/ML)
CEH (Certified Ethical Hacker) (For Cybersecurity)
Master’s in Data Science or AI (If interested in research)

🔹 Hackathons & Competitions

Since you’ve done well in hackathons, continue participating in:
Google Hash Code, Facebook Hackathon, or Codeforces Contests
Build AI/ML models for real-world problems
This Python material is for reference to gain
basic knowledge about python ; don't rely
solely on it, and also refer to other internet
resources for competitive exams. Thank you
from CodTech.