Chapter 1: Computer System

1. Introduction to Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process

it, and generate results (output). In today's world, modern computers are electronic

devices that are programmable, accepting raw data as input. They then process this data

based on instructions provided in a program by a programmer, and produce results as

output. Computers can also save the output for future use, indicating the presence of

memory. They are capable of processing both numerical and non-numerical calculations.

The word "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare," which means "to

calculate".

A computer system is an integrated form of different components that work together to

produce a result. It is a combination of hardware and software. When a computer is

combined with additional hardware and software, it forms a computer system. These

components include a Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) devices,

and storage devices. All these parts function together as a single unit to deliver the

desired output. Computer systems come in various forms and sizes, from high-end

servers to personal desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones.

Components of a Computer System (Overview) A computer system primarily comprises:

• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Memory (Primary, Secondary, Cache)

• Input Devices

• Output Devices

• Storage Devices
Hardware and Software

• Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that can be seen and

touched. These include input devices, output devices, the CPU, and memory. Examples are

keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, and RAM. Hardware components are divided into

categories like input devices, output devices, storage devices, and internal components.

• Software is a set of recorded instructions and programs that govern the working of the

computer. It consists of instructions and data processed by the computer hardware. Unlike

hardware, software cannot be physically touched or viewed. Its sole purpose is to make

computer hardware useful and operational. Software acts as an interface between human

users and the hardware, allowing communication and control.

2. Evolution of Computer

The evolution of computing devices from simple calculators to powerful data processors

has occurred in a relatively short span of time. Initially, computers were very basic,

performed limited tasks, and required significant human involvement and effort. Over

time, they have become highly modern, automated, and integral to our daily lives. This

evolution was rapid compared to other technological advancements.

Early Calculating Devices:

• Abacus (c. 500 BC): Believed to be the first computer in history, invented by the Chinese.

It was a manual device used for basic arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction) by

moving beads on rods according to specific rules. It primarily worked with whole numbers.

• Napier's Bones (1617): Invented by John Napier, this manually operated calculator used

nine different ivory sticks marked with numbers for multiplication and division. It was also

the first machine to introduce the use of a decimal point system for calculations.
• Pascaline (1642): Invented by French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal, this

was the first mechanical and automatic calculator. It was a wooden box with rotating gears

and wheels that could perform addition and subtraction quickly. Pascal designed it to help

his father, a tax accountant.

• Leibniz Wheel (Step Reckoner) (1673): Developed by German mathematician and

philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, this device improved upon Pascal's calculator. It

was a digital mechanical calculator that used fluted drums instead of gears, leading to

faster calculation speeds.

Charles Babbage: Difference Engine & Analytical Engine (Father of Modern Computers)

• Difference Engine (early 1820s): Designed by Charles Babbage, this was a mechanical

computer capable of performing simple calculations. It was steam-driven and designed to

automate the calculation of mathematical tables like logarithms.

• Analytical Engine (1834): Also developed by Charles Babbage, this was another

mechanical computing machine that used punch cards as input. This machine was a

revolutionary step as it was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing

information in permanent memory or storage. Due to this invention, Charles Babbage is

widely known as the "Father of Modern Computers".

Tabulating Machine (1890)

• Invented by Herman Hollerith, this mechanical tabulator was based on punch cards. It

could process and record statistics, record, and sort data or information. This machine

was notably used for the US Census in 1890, demonstrating the potential for

government-funded projects. Hollerith later founded a company that became International

Business Machines (IBM) in 1911.

Turing Machine (1936)

• Developed by Alan Turing, this was a mathematical model of computation defining an

abstract machine capable of manipulating symbols on a strip of tape according to a table

of rules. The Turing machine concept was a general-purpose programmable machine

capable of solving any problem by executing programs stored on punch cards. It proved

the fundamental limitations of mechanical computation, paving the way for electronic

computers. Alan Turing's work was crucial during World War II for code-breaking, and his

contributions are seen as a base for Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Von Neumann Architecture (1945)

• John Von Neumann introduced the concept of a stored program computer, which allowed

both data and programs to be stored in memory. This architecture consists of a CPU for

arithmetic and logical instructions, memory for data and programs, and I/O devices with

communication channels.

Early Electronic Computers

• Mark-1 (1944): Built in partnership between IBM and Harvard, this was the first

programmable digital computer. Its development marked a "new era in the computer

world" by combining programming concepts with digital computing.

• ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): This was the first binary

programmable computer based on the Von Neumann architecture.

Generations of Computers: The evolution of digital computers is categorized into five

generations, largely based on the core electronic components used:

• First Generation (1940s - 1950s): Based on Vacuum Tubes. They were very large, slow,

generated a lot of heat, consumed much power, and often took up entire rooms.
Input/output was primarily via punch cards. Examples include ENIAC, UNIVAC, and IBM

650.

• Second Generation (1950s - 1960s): Characterized by the use of Transistors. Transistors

were smaller, more reliable, faster, and consumed less power than vacuum tubes. Memory

shifted to magnetic cores and magnetic tapes. Assembly language was introduced.

Examples include IBM 1401 and UNIVAC 1107.

• Third Generation (1960s - 1970s): Marked by Integrated Circuits (ICs). ICs allowed

thousands of transistors to be placed on a single silicon chip, drastically reducing

computer size and increasing speed and efficiency. High-level languages like FORTRAN,

BASIC, Pascal, and COBOL became common. Input/output methods included keyboards

and monitors/printers. Examples: IBM 360/370 and PDP-11. These computers were often

referred to as mini-computers due to their smaller size compared to mainframes.

• Fourth Generation (1970s - 1980s/Present): Featured Microprocessors and Very Large

Scale Integration (VLSI). VLSI allowed hundreds of thousands of components to be

integrated onto a single microchip. This led to the development of personal computers

(PCs). High-level languages like C++, Java, and Python emerged. Networking and the

World Wide Web (WWW) significantly grew during this era. Examples: IBM PC, Apple

Macintosh.

• Fifth Generation (1980s/Present - Future): Focuses on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and

Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI). ULSI integrates millions of transistors on a single

chip. These computers are expected to have parallel processing capabilities, understand

natural languages, and exhibit self-learning abilities. They prioritize less power
consumption and heat generation. Examples: Desktops, laptops, smartphones, tablets,

wearable gadgets.

Moore's Law (1965): Intel co-founder Gordon Moore predicted that the number of

transistors on a chip would double approximately every two years, while the costs would

be halved. This prediction has largely held true, driving the exponential growth in

computing power.

Modern Trends:

• Personal Computers (PCs): IBM introduced its first PC for home users in 1981, and Apple

released the Macintosh in 1984. The popularity of PCs surged with the introduction of

Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based operating systems by Microsoft, replacing

command-line interfaces like UNIX or DOS.

• World Wide Web (WWW): Its growth around the 1990s significantly accelerated the mass

usage of computers, making them indispensable in everyday life.

• Portable Computing: Laptops made personal computing portable. This was followed by

smartphones, tablets, and personal digital assistants, leveraging advancements in

processor miniaturization, faster memory, and high-speed connectivity.

• Wearable Gadgets: The latest wave includes smartwatches, lenses, headbands, and

headphones.

• Internet of Things (IoT): Smart appliances are becoming part of the IoT, leveraging the

power of Artificial Intelligence (AI).

3. Computer Memory

A computer system needs memory to store data and instructions for processing. When we

refer to "memory," we usually mean the main or primary memory. Secondary memory
(storage devices) is used for permanent storage of data, instructions, and results for

future use.

Units of Memory: Computers use binary numbers (0s and 1s) to store and process data.

• Bit (Binary Digit): The basic unit of memory, representing either 0 or 1. It is the smallest

unit of memory.

• Nibble: A group of 4 bits.

• Byte: A group of 8 bits. One byte can store a single character, like 'e' or 'A'.

• Larger units are formed by grouping bytes:

◦ 1 KB (Kilobyte) = 1024 Bytes (2^10 Bytes)

◦ 1 MB (Megabyte) = 1024 KB (2^10 KB)

◦ 1 GB (Gigabyte) = 1024 MB (2^10 MB)

◦ 1 TB (Terabyte) = 1024 GB (2^10 GB)

◦ 1 PB (Petabyte) = 1024 TB

◦ 1 EB (Exabyte) = 1024 PB

◦ 1 ZB (Zettabyte) = 1024 EB

◦ 1 YB (Yottabyte) = 1024 ZB

Types of Memory: Computers have two main types of memory: Primary Memory and

Secondary Memory. Cache Memory acts as a bridge between the CPU and primary

memory.

(A) Primary Memory (Main Memory)

• It is an essential component where programs and data are loaded before processing.

• The CPU directly interacts with primary memory for read/write operations.

• It is categorized into two types: RAM and ROM.

◦ Random Access Memory (RAM):

▪ Volatile: Data is retained only as long as power is supplied; it is wiped out when power is

lost. This is its main drawback.

▪ Temporary Storage: Used to store data temporarily while the computer is working.

▪ Faster than secondary memory.

▪ Whenever a program or application is launched, it is loaded into RAM for processing.

▪ Directly accessible by the computer.

▪ D RAM (Dynamic RAM): More common, chips have access times of 20 to 70

nanoseconds.

▪ S RAM (Static RAM): Faster than D RAM (around 10 nanoseconds) and used for special

applications.

◦ Read Only Memory (ROM):

▪ Non-volatile: Contents are not lost even when power is turned off.

▪ Permanent Storage: Used for small but faster permanent storage of contents that are

rarely changed.

▪ Example: The startup program (boot loader) that loads the operating system into primary

memory is stored in ROM.

▪ It is un-alterable; data cannot be written to or modified.

(B) Cache Memory

• A very high-speed memory placed between the CPU and primary memory.

• Purpose: To speed up CPU operations by storing copies of data from frequently accessed

primary memory locations.

• Functionality: When the CPU needs data, it first checks the cache. If found, it reads from

the cache; otherwise, it accesses primary memory. This mechanism reduces the average

time to access data from primary memory.

• It is a high-speed storage mechanism.

(C) Secondary Memory (Auxiliary/Storage Devices)

• Purpose: Needed to permanently store data or instructions for future use due to primary

memory's limited capacity and volatility.

• Characteristics: Non-volatile and has a larger storage capacity than primary memory.

• Slower and cheaper than main memory.

• Cannot be directly accessed by the CPU. Contents must first be loaded into primary

memory for CPU access.

• Examples: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive (SSD), CD/DVD, Memory Card, Pen

Drive, Blu-ray Disc.

◦ Magnetic Storage Media (e.g., Hard Disk Drive - HDD):

▪ Data is stored on rotating disks coated with magnetic material.

▪ Information is recorded as tiny magnetic spots on the surface of these disks.

▪ Hard disks have a large storage capacity, typically measured in gigabytes (GB) and

terabytes (TB).

◦ Optical Media (e.g., CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs):

▪ CDs (Compact Discs): Relatively cheap and store up to 700 MB of data.

• CD-ROM: Read-only.

• CD-R: Write-once, read-many times.

• CD-RW: Rewritable multiple times.

▪ DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs / Digital Video Discs): Faster and store more data than CDs

(up to 17 GB). Also known as Solid Dencity Disk (SDD).

▪ Blu-ray Discs: Used for high-definition video and data storage, capable of storing up to

128 GB of data.

◦ Flash Memory (e.g., Pen Drives, Memory Cards, SSDs):

▪ Portable storage devices like pen drives are easy to carry.

▪ SSDs (Solid State Drives): Support very fast data transfer speeds compared to HDDs.

They work similar to RAM but are non-volatile.

4. Data Transfer Between Memory and CPU

Data needs to be transferred between the CPU and primary memory, as well as between

primary and secondary memory.

• Bus: Data is transferred between different components of a computer system using

physical wires called buses.

• System Bus: All three types of buses (data, address, and control) collectively form the

system bus, which connects major components like the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It

is an electronic pathway that carries instructions and data among computer system

components.

• Types of Buses:

◦ Data Bus: Transfers data between different components. It is bidirectional because the

CPU may need to read data from or write data to main memory.

◦ Address Bus: Transfers memory addresses between the CPU and main memory. It is

unidirectional because the CPU specifies the address of the memory location it wants to

read from or write to.

◦ Control Bus: Communicates control signals (e.g., read, write) between different

components of a computer. It is also unidirectional.

• Data Flow:

◦ Any data entered from an input device or accessed from a hard disk must first be placed

in the main memory for processing.

◦ The CPU places the desired memory location's address on the address bus and sends

read/write signals via the control bus.

◦ For write operations, data is placed on the data bus and written to the specified address.

For read operations, data is placed on the data bus by a memory controller.

5. Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

Microprocessor

• A processor (CPU) implemented on a single microchip is called a microprocessor. In

earlier days, CPUs occupied large rooms, but technological advancements have

miniaturized them.

• Function: Carries out various tasks involved in data processing as well as arithmetic and

logical operations.

• Composition: Built over an integrated circuit (IC) comprising millions of small

components like resistors, transistors, and diodes.

• Evolution: Microprocessors have evolved with increased processing capability,

decreasing physical size, and reduced cost.

• Synonymity: Nowadays, almost all CPUs are microprocessors, so the terms are often

used synonymously for practical purposes.

Microprocessor Specifications Microprocessors are classified based on features like:

• Chip Type: Refers to the type of integration (LSI, VLSI, SLSI).

• Word Size: The maximum number of bits a microprocessor can process at a time. Initially

8 bits, current minimum is 16 bits, maximum 64 bits.

• Memory Size: The amount of RAM that can be used, which varies with word size. From 1

KB in first generation to 64 GB in fifth generation.

• Clock Speed: The number of pulses generated per second by the internal clock of a

computer, indicating the speed at which instructions are executed.

◦ Measured in Hertz (Hz), Kilohertz (kHz), Megahertz (MHz), and now commonly in

Gigahertz (GHz) (billions of pulses per second).

◦ Higher frequency means more instructions can be performed in a given time.

◦ Early processors ran at 3-5 MHz; modern processors commonly run at 3-5 GHz.

• Cores: A basic computation unit of the CPU.

◦ Early processors had single cores, performing one task at a time.

◦ The advent of multi-core processors (e.g., dual-core, quad-core, octa-core) allows

computers to execute multiple tasks simultaneously, increasing system performance.

Microcontrollers

• A microcontroller is a small computing device that has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM,

ROM, and other peripherals, all embedded on a single chip.

• Contrast with Microprocessor: Unlike a microprocessor which has only a CPU on the

chip, a microcontroller integrates more components.

• Purpose: Designed for specific tasks only, which reduces their size and cost.
• Application: Embedded in other devices or systems to perform specific functionalities

without human intervention, such as in washing machines, digital cameras, remote

controllers, keyboards, and mice.

6. Data and Information

A computer primarily processes data, considering everything from instructions to pictures,

songs, videos, and documents as data.

• Data: Raw and unorganized facts that are processed to get meaningful information.

Internally, all data is stored in binary form (0s and 1s).

• Information: The meaningful output derived from processing raw data.

• Knowledge: Often used interchangeably with data and information, but is a distinct

concept.

Types of Data Data can be categorized into three main types:

• Structured Data:

◦ Definition: Data that follows a strict record structure and is easy to comprehend. It has a

pre-specified tabular format, often stored in a data file.

◦ Characteristics: Organized in row/column format and easily understandable. Can be

sorted.

◦ Examples: Sales transactions, online railway ticket bookings, ATM transactions, monthly

attendance records in a school table.

• Unstructured Data:

◦ Definition: Data that is not organized in a predefined record format.

◦ Examples: Audio and video files, graphics, text documents, social media posts, satellite

images, report cards with mixed textual content and graphics.

• Semi-structured Data:

◦ Definition: Data that has no well-defined structure but maintains internal tags or

markings to separate data elements.

◦ Examples: Email documents, HTML pages, comma-separated values (CSV) files,

month-wise attendance details with tags like 'Name', 'Month', 'Class', 'Attendance'.

Data Capturing, Storage, and Retrieval

• Data Capturing: The process of gathering data from different sources in digital form. This

can be done via keyboards, barcode readers, social media posts, or remote sensors.

Heterogeneity of data sources can make it complex.

• Data Storage: The process of storing captured data for later processing. With data being

produced at high rates, storage is challenging, but decreasing costs of digital storage

devices help. Storage devices need periodic upgrades as data grows. Large organizations

use data servers for vast amounts of data.

• Data Retrieval: Involves fetching data from storage devices for processing as per user

requirements. Minimizing data access time is crucial for faster processing.

Data Deletion and Recovery

• Data Deletion Threats: Digital data faces threats from device malfunction, accidental

erasure, hackers, or malware.

• Mechanism of Deletion: When data is "deleted" digitally, its address entry is merely

marked as free, and the space appears empty to the user, without actual physical deletion

of the data at the bit level. This process is time-consuming.

• Data Recovery: Possible only if the deleted memory space has not been overwritten by

other data. It is the process of retrieving deleted, corrupted, or lost data from secondary

storage devices.

• Security Concerns:

◦ Unauthorized Deletion: Prevented by limiting access, using passwords, and encrypting

files.

◦ Unwanted Recovery: Discarded storage devices containing "deleted" data can be

recovered by unauthorized users, posing a threat to confidentiality. Mitigation involves

using proper tools to shred data before disposal.

7. Software

Software is a set of instructions written to achieve desired tasks. It makes hardware

functional and operational. Software acts as an interface between human users and

hardware. Examples include operating systems (Windows, Ubuntu), word processors

(Microsoft Word), media players (VLC), and photo editors (GIMP). A document or image

stored digitally is a "soft-copy," while its printed version is a "hard-copy".

Categories of Software Software can be broadly classified into three categories based on

interaction with hardware and functions:

• System Software

• Programming Tools

• Application Software

(A) System Software

• Definition: Provides the basic functionality to operate a computer by interacting directly

with its hardware. It knows how to operate and use different hardware components.
• Purpose: Provides services directly to the end-user or other software.

• Examples:

◦ Operating System (OS): The most basic system software that operates the computer;

without it, other software cannot work. It manages application programs, provides user

access and security.

◦ System Utilities: Software for maintenance and configuration of the computer system.

Examples include disk defragmentation tools, formatting utilities, system restore utilities

(often shipped with OS). Others like anti-virus software, disk cleaner tools, and disk

compression software improve system performance.

◦ Device Drivers: Ensure the proper functioning of a particular device. They act as an

interface between the device and the operating system, hiding hardware-level operation

details.

(B) Programming Tools

• Used for writing instructions for computers, as humans and computers understand

different languages.

• Components:

◦ Programming Languages:

▪ Low-level Languages: Machine-dependent, difficult for humans to write in.

• Machine Language: Uses 1s and 0s (binary code), directly understood by the computer.

Difficult to code and debug.

• Assembly Language: Uses English-like words and symbols (mnemonics) instead of 1s

and 0s. Computer-specific, meaning code for one CPU type cannot be used for another.
▪ High-level Languages: Machine-independent and simpler to write using English-like

sentences. Not directly understood by computers, requiring translators. Examples: C++,

Java, Python.

◦ Language Translators: Convert program code (source code) into

machine-understandable form (object/machine code).

▪ Assembler: Converts assembly language code into machine language. Each assembler

understands a specific microprocessor instruction set, so machine code is not portable.

▪ Compiler: Converts the entire source code into machine code at once. If syntax rules are

followed, the code is executed. Once translated, the compiler is not needed.

▪ Interpreter: Translates one line at a time. Converts a line into executable code if

syntactically correct, then repeats for all lines. The interpreter is always needed for

execution.

◦ Program Development Tools:

▪ Text Editor: Software for creating text files to type instructions (source code).

▪ Integrated Development Environment (IDE): Combines a text editor, building tools, and a

debugger, allowing programs to be typed, compiled, and debugged directly. Examples:

Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse.

▪ Debugger: Software used to detect and correct errors in the source code.

(C) Application Software

• Definition: Software that works on top of system software to cater to the specific

requirements of end-users. A computer system can work without application software, but

not without system software.

• Categories:
◦ General Purpose Software: Developed for generic applications to cater to a broader

audience. Ready-made software usable by any user. Examples: Spreadsheet tools

(LibreOffice Calc), word processing software (MS Word), graphic editors (Adobe

Photoshop, GIMP), web browsers (Mozilla Firefox), multimedia software, and presentation

software (PPT).

◦ Customized Software: Tailor-made application software developed to meet the specific

requirements of an organization or individual. Examples: Websites, school management

software, accounting software, payroll management, inventory management, invoice

management.

Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)

• Free and Open Source Software (FOSS): Developers provide their source code and

software freely to the public for development and improvement. Examples: Ubuntu (OS),

Python, LibreOffice, Mozilla Firefox.

• Freeware: Software freely available for use, but its source code may not be available.

Examples: Skype, Adobe Reader.

• Proprietary Software: Software that must be purchased from the vendor who holds the

copyright. Examples: Microsoft Windows, Tally, Quickheal.

8. Operating System (Detailed)

An Operating System (OS) is a system software that manages all the resources of a

computer (hardware including CPU, RAM, Disk, Network, I/O devices). It also controls

application software and device drivers, manages system security, and handles user

access. It is considered a resource manager.

Primary Objectives of an OS:

1. Provide services for building and running application programs: It loads programs into

memory, allocates them to the CPU, and decides the execution order for multiple

programs.

2. Provide an interface to the user: Allows users to interact with the computer.

OS User Interface Different types of user interfaces provide distinct functionalities:

• Command-based Interface (CUI/CLI):

◦ Requires users to enter commands (e.g., to create, open, edit, delete files). Users must

remember specific commands.

◦ Primary input device: Keyboard.

◦ Often less interactive and usually allows running a single program at a time.

◦ Examples: MS-DOS, Unix.

• Graphical User Interface (GUI):

◦ Allows users to interact with icons, menus, and other visual options. Icons represent

files/programs, and windows represent running programs.

◦ Input devices: Commonly mouse and keyboard.

◦ Examples: Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora, Macintosh.

• Touch-based Interface:

◦ Users interact by touching the screen. OS interprets touch inputs as commands (e.g.,

opening/closing apps, dialing numbers, scrolling).

◦ Examples: Android, iOS, Windows 8.1/10 (on touchscreen devices).

• Voice-based Interface:

◦ Allows users to use voice commands. Addresses needs of users who cannot use physical

input devices or prefer hands-free interaction.

◦ Examples: iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now/OK Google), Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana).

• Gesture-based Interface:

◦ Users interact using gestures (e.g., waving, tilting, eye motion, shaking).

◦ Technology is evolving with potential in gaming, medicine, and other areas.

Functions of Operating System The OS provides important services and tasks for

managing the computer system:

• Process Management:

◦ A task in execution is called a process.

◦ OS manages multiple processes, allocates required resources, and facilitates information

exchange among them.

◦ Ensures multiple tasks are completed in minimum time. CPU allocation among processes

is a crucial OS service.

• Memory Management:

◦ Manages the main memory (which is usually limited).

◦ Dynamically allocates and frees memory to running processes without affecting others.

◦ Recovers memory space for re-utilization once a process finishes.

◦ Keeps track of occupied and free memory locations to ensure optimal utilization.

• File Management:

◦ Manages creation, updation, deletion, and protection of files in secondary storage.

◦ Ensures security measures to restrict unauthorized access to files, especially in

multi-user systems.

• Device Management:

◦ Manages heterogeneous I/O devices and hardware connected to the system.

◦ Interacts with device drivers and related software for proper device functioning.

◦ Provides options for configuring devices for end-user or other device use.

◦ Restricts device access to authorized users, software, and hardware.