Here is a complete, clear, and beginner-friendly explanation of the three major SQL language

categories:

1. DDL – Data Definition Language

✅ What is DDL?

DDL is used to define or change the structure of database objects such as tables, schemas, or
indexes. These commands affect the schema of the database.

Common DDL Commands

Command Description Example

CREATE TABLE Students (ID INT, Name

CREATE Creates a new table, view, database, etc.
VARCHAR(50));

Deletes tables, views, databases

DROP DROP TABLE Students;
permanently

Modifies an existing table (add/remove

ALTER ALTER TABLE Students ADD Age INT;
columns)

Deletes all rows in a table (faster than

TRUNCATE TRUNCATE TABLE Students;
DELETE)

RENAME TABLE Students TO Learners;

RENAME Renames a table or column
(MySQL)

🧠 Key Notes:

 DDL operations auto-commit (cannot be rolled back).

 Used to design or redesign your database.

🔍 2. DQL – Data Query Language

✅ What is DQL?

DQL is used to query and retrieve data from a database.

Main DQL Command

Command Description Example

SELECT Retrieves data from one or more tables SELECT Name, Age FROM Students;
🧠 Key Notes:

 Does not modify data or structure.

 Used for reading data only.

 Often used with clauses like WHERE, GROUP BY, ORDER BY, LIMIT.

✏️3. DML – Data Manipulation Language

✅ What is DML?

DML is used to insert, update, or delete data in the database. It deals with actual records inside
tables.

Common DML Commands

Command Description Example

INSERT Adds new data into a table INSERT INTO Students (ID, Name) VALUES (1, 'Shahida');

UPDATE Modifies existing data in a table UPDATE Students SET Name = 'Aisha' WHERE ID = 1;

DELETE Deletes data from a table DELETE FROM Students WHERE ID = 1;

🧠 Key Notes:

 DML operations can be rolled back (unlike DDL).

 Used for changing the content of tables.

✅ Comparison Table: DDL vs DQL vs DML

Feature DDL DQL DML

Full Form Data Definition Language Data Query Language Data Manipulation Language

Purpose Define database structure Retrieve data Modify data in tables

Examples CREATE, DROP, ALTER SELECT INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

Affects Table structure/schema Table data (read only) Table data (insert/update)

Rollback ❌ Not possible (auto-commit) 🔄 Not needed ✅ Rollback supported

Would you like:

 🌐 Real-life examples (e.g., HR systems, banking)?

 💻 Practice problems with these commands?

  📄 Full notes as a downloadable PDF?

Let me know how I can help next!

Here’s a complete and beginner-friendly explanation of DCL (Data Control Language) and TCL
(Transaction Control Language) in SQL, including commands, examples, and key differences:

🔐 DCL – Data Control Language

✅ What is DCL?

DCL is used to control access to data in the database. It helps manage user permissions and security.

Key DCL Commands

Command Description Example

GRANT Gives user access privileges GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON Employees TO 'shahida';

REVOKE Removes access privileges REVOKE SELECT ON Employees FROM 'shahida';

🔑 Common Privileges in DCL:

 SELECT – View data

 INSERT – Add data

 UPDATE – Modify data

 DELETE – Remove data

 ALL PRIVILEGES – Grant all permissions

Example:

-- Grant permission

GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON Students TO 'user1';

-- Revoke permission

REVOKE UPDATE ON Students FROM 'user1';

🔁 TCL – Transaction Control Language

✅ What is TCL?
TCL is used to manage transactions in SQL. A transaction is a group of operations that are treated as
a single unit. TCL ensures data integrity.

Key TCL Commands

Command Description Example

COMMIT Saves all changes made during the transaction COMMIT;

ROLLBACK Undoes changes made during the transaction ROLLBACK;

Sets a point to which you can roll back part of a

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT sp1;
transaction

RELEASE
Deletes a savepoint created earlier RELEASE SAVEPOINT sp1;
SAVEPOINT

SET TRANSACTION READ

SET TRANSACTION Sets transaction properties like isolation level
ONLY;

🧠 Example:

BEGIN;

UPDATE BankAccount SET Balance = Balance - 500 WHERE ID = 1;

UPDATE BankAccount SET Balance = Balance + 500 WHERE ID = 2;

COMMIT; -- All changes saved

If an error occurs:

ROLLBACK; -- Undo both updates

🆚 DCL vs TCL – Summary

Feature DCL TCL

Full Form Data Control Language Transaction Control Language

Purpose Control access and permissions Manage transaction execution

Example Commands GRANT, REVOKE COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT

Security vs Data Focuses on security Focuses on data integrity

✅ Summary in 1 Line:
  DCL = "Who can do what?"

 TCL = "Should these changes be saved or not?"

Would you like:

 📝 Practice problems on DCL and TCL?

 📄 Full notes in PDF?

 💡 Real-world use cases (like in banking or admin panels)?

Let me know how you'd like to proceed!

Here's a complete explanation of SQL and all the topics you've listed, structured clearly:

💡 What is SQL?

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language used to manage and manipulate relational
databases. It allows you to create, read, update, and delete data from databases using simple
English-like commands.

🧩 SQL Basics

🔹 1. Introduction

 SQL is used with RDBMS like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, etc.

 Follows standard syntax to work with data in tables.

 Commonly used in backend development, data analysis, and database management.

🔹 2. Data Types

These define the kind of data a column can store:

 INT – Integer values

 VARCHAR(n) – String/text up to n characters

 DATE – Stores date (YYYY-MM-DD)

 FLOAT – Floating-point numbers

 BOOLEAN – True/False values

 TEXT – Large text data

🔹 3. Operators

Used to perform operations in SQL queries:

  Arithmetic: +, -, *, /

 Comparison: =, !=, >, <, >=, <=

 Logical: AND, OR, NOT

 Special: BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, IS NULL

🔹 4. SQL Commands

Categorized into:

 DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, DROP, ALTER

 DML (Data Manipulation Language): INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

 DQL (Data Query Language): SELECT

 TCL (Transaction Control Language): COMMIT, ROLLBACK

 DCL (Data Control Language): GRANT, REVOKE

Database Operations

🔹 CREATE DATABASE

CREATE DATABASE CollegeDB;

🔹 DROP DATABASE

DROP DATABASE CollegeDB;

🔹 RENAME DATABASE

Not directly supported in all systems, but possible like:

ALTER DATABASE CollegeDB MODIFY NAME = UniversityDB;

🔹 SELECT DATABASE

USE CollegeDB;

📋 Table Operations

🔹 CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT PRIMARY KEY,

Name VARCHAR(100),

Age INT

);
🔹 DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE Students;

🔹 RENAME TABLE

RENAME TABLE Students TO Learners;

🔹 TRUNCATE TABLE

Deletes all rows but keeps the table structure:

TRUNCATE TABLE Students;

🔹 COPY TABLE

Create a copy with structure and data:

CREATE TABLE StudentsCopy AS SELECT * FROM Students;

🔹 TEMP TABLE

Temporary table that exists only during the session:

CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE TempStudents (

ID INT,

Name VARCHAR(50)

);

🔹 ALTER TABLE

Add, drop or modify columns:

ALTER TABLE Students ADD Email VARCHAR(100);

🔍 Data Manipulation & Querying

🔹 SELECT Statement

Used to fetch data:

SELECT * FROM Students;

SELECT Name, Age FROM Students WHERE Age > 18;

🔹 INSERT INTO

Add a new row:

INSERT INTO Students (ID, Name, Age) VALUES (1, 'Shahida', 20);

🔹 INSERT Multiple Rows

INSERT INTO Students (ID, Name, Age)

VALUES
(2, 'Ravi', 22),

(3, 'Neha', 21);

🔹 UPDATE Statement

Modify existing data:

UPDATE Students SET Age = 23 WHERE ID = 1;

🔹 DELETE Statement

Remove rows:

DELETE FROM Students WHERE ID = 2;

🔹 DELETE Duplicate Rows

Using ROW_NUMBER() in advanced SQL:

DELETE FROM Students

WHERE ID NOT IN (

SELECT MIN(ID)

FROM Students

GROUP BY Name, Age

);

If you'd like, I can turn this into a printable PDF or explain each topic with examples and visuals. Just
let me know how you'd like to continue!

Here’s a detailed explanation of each SQL clause you mentioned, with syntax and examples:

🔍 WHERE Clause

Used to filter rows based on a condition.

Syntax:

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age > 18;

Example:

SELECT Name FROM Students WHERE Age = 21;

🧠 WITH Clause (Common Table Expressions - CTE)

Used to create temporary named result sets that can be referenced in a query.

Syntax:
WITH TopStudents AS (

SELECT Name, Marks FROM Students WHERE Marks > 90

SELECT * FROM TopStudents;

📊 HAVING Clause

Used to filter groups after aggregation (used with GROUP BY).

Syntax:

SELECT Department, COUNT(*) FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department

HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

🔡 ORDER BY Clause

Used to sort the result set by one or more columns.

Syntax:

SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Name ASC;

SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Age DESC;

📁 GROUP BY Clause

Used to group rows that have the same values in specified columns.

Syntax:

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department;

🔢 LIMIT Clause

Used to limit the number of rows returned (MySQL, PostgreSQL).

Syntax:

SELECT * FROM Students LIMIT 5;

🎯 DISTINCT Clause

Used to return only unique/distinct values.

Syntax:

SELECT DISTINCT Department FROM Employees;

⏩ FETCH Clause

Used for pagination or to fetch a limited number of rows (used with OFFSET).

Syntax:

SELECT * FROM Students

ORDER BY Age

OFFSET 2 ROWS FETCH NEXT 3 ROWS ONLY;

Note: Works in Oracle, SQL Server, PostgreSQL (some versions)

Aliases

Used to rename columns or tables temporarily for display or readability.

Syntax:

SELECT Name AS StudentName FROM Students;

SELECT S.Name, D.Name AS DeptName

FROM Students S

JOIN Departments D ON S.DeptID = D.ID;

✅ Summary Table:

Clause Purpose Common Use

WHERE Filter rows before grouping Basic filtering

WITH Define temporary named queries Readable complex queries

HAVING Filter after GROUP BY Filter aggregates

ORDER BY Sort result set Sorting

GROUP BY Group rows for aggregate functions Aggregation

LIMIT Limit number of results Pagination

DISTINCT Eliminate duplicate values Unique values

FETCH Fetch limited rows with offset Pagination

AS (Aliases) Rename column or table temporarily Better readability

Would you like this in a PDF or as a visual summary chart?

Here’s a clear and complete explanation of all the SQL Operators you've listed — with syntax, usage,
and examples:

🔗 Logical & Comparison Operators

🔹 AND Operator

Returns true only if all conditions are true.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age > 18 AND Department = 'CSE';

🔹 OR Operator

Returns true if any one condition is true.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age < 18 OR Department = 'ECE';

🔹 Logical Operators

These include:

 AND

 OR

 NOT

Used in WHERE, HAVING, JOIN ON, etc., to combine or negate conditions.

🔹 LIKE Operator

Used for pattern matching with wildcards:

 % = zero or more characters

 _ = exactly one character

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Name LIKE 'S%'; -- Starts with S

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Name LIKE '_a%'; -- Second letter is 'a'

🔹 IN Operator

Checks if a value exists in a list.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Department IN ('CSE', 'ECE', 'IT');

🔹 NOT Operator

Negates a condition.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE NOT Age > 18;

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Department NOT IN ('CSE', 'ECE');

🔹 NOT EQUAL Operator

Compares two values for inequality.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age != 20;

-- or

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age <> 20;

🔹 IS NULL Operator

Checks if a column has NULL (missing) values.

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Email IS NULL;

🔄 Set Operators

🔹 UNION Operator

Combines results from two queries and removes duplicates.

SELECT Name FROM Students

UNION

SELECT Name FROM Alumni;

🔹 UNION ALL Operator

Same as UNION, but keeps duplicates.

SELECT Name FROM Students

UNION ALL

SELECT Name FROM Alumni;

🔹 EXCEPT Operator (Not in MySQL)

Returns rows from the first query not present in the second.

SELECT Name FROM Students

EXCEPT

SELECT Name FROM Graduates;

🔹 INTERSECT Operator (Not in MySQL)

Returns only common rows between two queries.

SELECT Name FROM Students

INTERSECT

SELECT Name FROM TopPerformers;

🔍 Range, Subquery, Conditional Operators

🔹 BETWEEN Operator

Checks if a value is within a range (inclusive).

SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age BETWEEN 18 AND 22;

🔹 ALL and ANY Operators

Used with subqueries for comparison.

 ALL: Condition must be true for all values.

SELECT Name FROM Students

WHERE Age > ALL (SELECT Age FROM Freshers);

 ANY: Condition must be true for any one value.

SELECT Name FROM Students

WHERE Age > ANY (SELECT Age FROM Freshers);

🔹 EXISTS Operator

Checks if a subquery returns rows.

SELECT Name FROM Students S

WHERE EXISTS (
 SELECT 1 FROM Enrollments E WHERE E.StudentID = S.ID

);

🔹 CASE Operator

Used for if-else logic in SQL.

SELECT Name,

CASE

WHEN Marks >= 90 THEN 'A'

WHEN Marks >= 75 THEN 'B'

ELSE 'C'

END AS Grade

FROM Students;

✅ Summary Table

Operator Use Case

AND, OR, NOT Combine or negate conditions

LIKE Pattern matching

IN, NOT IN Check existence in a list

IS NULL Check for missing values

!=, <> Not equal

UNION Combine results (no duplicates)

UNION ALL Combine results (with duplicates)

INTERSECT Common results (SQL Server, Oracle)

EXCEPT Difference (SQL Server, PostgreSQL)

BETWEEN Range filtering

ALL, ANY Subquery comparison

EXISTS Check if subquery returns rows

CASE Conditional logic in queries

Would you like this converted into a PDF summary sheet, flashcards, or interactive quiz for practice?
Here’s a complete explanation of Aggregate Functions in SQL, including examples for each:

📊 SQL Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value. They are
often used with the GROUP BY, HAVING, and SELECT statements.

🔹 1. COUNT() Function

Returns the number of rows that match a condition or total rows in a column.

Syntax:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students;

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Department) FROM Students;

Example:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS TotalStudents FROM Students;

🔹 2. SUM() Function

Returns the sum of values in a numeric column.

Syntax:

SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Students;

Example:

SELECT Department, SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary

FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department;

🔹 3. MIN() Function

Returns the minimum value in a column.

Syntax:

SELECT MIN(Age) FROM Students;

Example:

SELECT Department, MIN(Salary) AS MinSalary

FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department;
🔹 4. MAX() Function

Returns the maximum value in a column.

Syntax:

SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Students;

Example:

SELECT Department, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary

FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department;

🔹 5. AVG() Function

Returns the average (mean) of numeric values.

Syntax:

SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Students;

Example:

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary

FROM Employees

GROUP BY Department;

✅ Aggregate Functions Summary Table

Function Purpose Example

COUNT() Number of rows SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students;

SUM() Total sum of values SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Students;

MIN() Smallest value SELECT MIN(Age) FROM Students;

MAX() Largest value SELECT MAX(Age) FROM Students;

AVG() Average of values SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Students;

💡 Notes:

 Often used with GROUP BY to compute aggregates per group.

 Can also be combined with HAVING to filter aggregate results.

Would you like a PDF summary, practice questions, or interactive SQL playground recommendation
for hands-on learning?

Here’s a complete and beginner-friendly explanation of SQL Constraints with each type clearly
defined and explained:

🔒 What Are Constraints in SQL?

Constraints in SQL are rules applied to table columns to enforce data integrity and ensure valid,
consistent, and reliable data in a database.

Constraints are used when creating or altering tables.

✅ Types of SQL Constraints

🔹 1. NOT NULL Constraint

Ensures that a column cannot have NULL (empty) values.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT NOT NULL,

Name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL

);

Example: You can’t insert a student without a name or ID.

🔹 2. PRIMARY KEY Constraint

 Uniquely identifies each row in a table.

 A table can have only one primary key.

 It is a combination of NOT NULL + UNIQUE.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT PRIMARY KEY,

Name VARCHAR(50)

);

🔹 3. FOREIGN KEY Constraint

  Links two tables.

 A foreign key in one table refers to a primary key in another.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Enrollments (

EnrollmentID INT PRIMARY KEY,

StudentID INT,

FOREIGN KEY (StudentID) REFERENCES Students(ID)

);

🔹 4. COMPOSITE KEY

 A primary key made of two or more columns.

 Used when a single column is not sufficient to uniquely identify a row.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID INT,

ProductID INT,

Quantity INT,

PRIMARY KEY (OrderID, ProductID)

);

🔹 5. UNIQUE Constraint

 Ensures all values in a column are different.

 Unlike primary key, a table can have multiple UNIQUE constraints.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT PRIMARY KEY,

Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE

);

🔹 6. ALTERNATE KEY

 A column(s) that could be a primary key, but isn’t.

  Defined using the UNIQUE constraint.

 Acts as a backup identifier.

Example:
In a Users table, both UserID and Email can uniquely identify users. UserID is the primary key, and
Email is the alternate key.

🔹 7. CHECK Constraint

 Ensures that values in a column meet a specific condition.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT,

Age INT CHECK (Age >= 18)

);

🔹 8. DEFAULT Constraint

 Assigns a default value if no value is provided during insertion.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE Students (

ID INT,

City VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'Hyderabad'

);

📋 Summary Table

Constraint Description

NOT NULL Column must have a value

PRIMARY KEY Uniquely identifies rows, only one per table

FOREIGN KEY References primary key in another table

COMPOSITE KEY Primary key with 2+ columns

UNIQUE All values must be different

ALTERNATE KEY A candidate key not chosen as primary key

CHECK Restricts values based on a condition

Constraint Description

DEFAULT Sets a default value if none is provided

Would you like this content in PDF, or shall I give you examples of inserting and violating constraints
to show how they work in practice?

Here is a complete and clear explanation of all SQL JOINs, including their purpose, syntax, and
examples:

🔗 What is a JOIN in SQL?

JOINs are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column (usually a key).

🔹 1. INNER JOIN (Often just called JOIN)

Returns only matching rows from both tables.

Syntax:

SELECT A.Name, B.Marks

FROM Students A

JOIN Results B ON A.ID = B.StudentID;

Use Case: Show students who have exam results.

🔹 2. LEFT JOIN (or LEFT OUTER JOIN)

Returns all rows from the left table, and matching rows from the right. Non-matches show as NULL.

Syntax:

SELECT A.Name, B.Marks

FROM Students A

LEFT JOIN Results B ON A.ID = B.StudentID;

Use Case: Show all students, even if they don’t have results.

🔹 3. RIGHT JOIN (or RIGHT OUTER JOIN)

Returns all rows from the right table, and matching rows from the left.

Syntax:

SELECT A.Name, B.Marks

FROM Students A
RIGHT JOIN Results B ON A.ID = B.StudentID;

Use Case: Show all results, even if they aren’t matched with a student.

🔹 4. FULL JOIN (or FULL OUTER JOIN)

Returns all rows from both tables, with NULL where there’s no match.

Syntax (PostgreSQL / SQL Server):

SELECT A.Name, B.Marks

FROM Students A

FULL OUTER JOIN Results B ON A.ID = B.StudentID;

Use Case: Combine both tables entirely, showing unmatched data from either.

🔹 5. CROSS JOIN

Returns the Cartesian product — all possible combinations of rows from both tables.

Syntax:

SELECT A.Name, B.Course

FROM Students A

CROSS JOIN Courses B;

Use Case: Useful for pairing every student with every course.

🔹 6. SELF JOIN

A table is joined with itself to compare rows.

Syntax:

SELECT A.Name AS Student1, B.Name AS Student2

FROM Students A, Students B

WHERE A.MentorID = B.ID;

Use Case: Finding relationships within the same table (e.g., managers, mentors).

🔹 7. UPDATE with JOIN

Update one table using values from another.

Syntax (MySQL):

UPDATE Employees E
JOIN Departments D ON E.DeptID = D.ID

SET E.DeptName = D.Name;

Use Case: Update employee records with department names.

🔹 8. DELETE with JOIN

Delete rows from one table based on a match with another.

Syntax (MySQL):

DELETE E

FROM Employees E

JOIN Departments D ON E.DeptID = D.ID

WHERE D.Name = 'ClosedDept';

Use Case: Remove employees from departments that are closed.

🔹 9. RECURSIVE JOIN

Used with recursive Common Table Expressions (CTEs) to retrieve hierarchical or tree-structured
data.

Syntax (PostgreSQL / SQL Server):

WITH RECURSIVE OrgChart AS (

SELECT ID, Name, ManagerID

FROM Employees

WHERE ManagerID IS NULL

UNION ALL

SELECT E.ID, E.Name, E.ManagerID

FROM Employees E

JOIN OrgChart OC ON E.ManagerID = OC.ID

SELECT * FROM OrgChart;

Use Case: Finding employee hierarchy, parent-child relationships, organization charts.

✅ JOIN Summary Table

JOIN Type Description Returns

INNER JOIN Matches in both tables Only matching rows

LEFT JOIN All rows from left + matches from right Unmatched right → NULL

RIGHT JOIN All rows from right + matches from left Unmatched left → NULL

FULL JOIN All rows from both sides NULL where no match

CROSS JOIN Cartesian product All combinations

SELF JOIN Join table with itself Related rows within the same table

UPDATE JOIN Update using another table Matches rows for update

DELETE JOIN Delete using another table Matches rows for delete

RECURSIVE JOIN Hierarchical data with recursion Tree/graph structure like org chart

Would you like this content in:

 ✅ A printable PDF notes format

 📊 A visual diagram of JOINs

 🧠 A practice quiz to test your understanding?

Here's a complete and clear explanation of SQL Functions and each category/type you've mentioned:

🧠 What is a SQL Function?

A SQL Function is a predefined operation that takes input, performs a computation, and returns a
value. SQL functions are used to manipulate data, analyze, or format results in queries.

SQL functions are categorized as:

 Scalar Functions – return a single value (e.g., UPPER(), NOW())

 Aggregate Functions – return a value based on a group (e.g., SUM(), AVG())

(Aggregate functions were already explained earlier.)

🔢 1. Numeric Functions

Used to perform mathematical operations on numeric data.

Function Description Example

ABS(x) Absolute value SELECT ABS(-9); → 9

ROUND(x, d) Rounds number x to d decimals SELECT ROUND(23.567, 1); → 23.6

CEIL(x) Rounds up SELECT CEIL(4.2); → 5

Function Description Example

FLOOR(x) Rounds down SELECT FLOOR(4.9); → 4

POWER(x, y) Returns x to the power y SELECT POWER(2, 3); → 8

MOD(x, y) Modulus (remainder) SELECT MOD(10, 3); → 1

📅 2. Date Functions

Used to manipulate and retrieve date/time values.

Function Description Example

NOW() Current date and time SELECT NOW();

CURDATE() Current date SELECT CURDATE();

CURTIME() Current time SELECT CURTIME();

DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL SELECT DATE_ADD('2025-06-11', INTERVAL 5

Adds days/months/etc.
x) DAY);

Days between two SELECT DATEDIFF('2025-06-20', '2025-06-11');

DATEDIFF(d1, d2)
dates →9

🧵 3. String Functions

Used to manipulate or retrieve information from text/string data.

Function Description Example

UPPER(str) Converts to uppercase SELECT UPPER('shahida'); → 'SHAHIDA'

LOWER(str) Converts to lowercase SELECT LOWER('HELLO'); → 'hello'

LTRIM(str) Removes leading spaces SELECT LTRIM(' hello'); → 'hello'

RTRIM(str) Removes trailing spaces SELECT RTRIM('hello '); → 'hello'

LENGTH(str) Returns string length SELECT LENGTH('SQL'); → 3

SUBSTRING(str, x, y) Extracts substring SELECT SUBSTRING('SQLTutorial', 4, 3); → 'Tut'

CONCAT(a, b) Combines strings SELECT CONCAT('SQL', ' Functions'); → 'SQL Functions'

📊 4. Statistical Functions

Some databases (like PostgreSQL, SQL Server) include statistical or analytic functions.
Function Description Example

STDDEV(expr) Standard deviation SELECT STDDEV(Salary) FROM Employees;

VAR_POP(expr) Population variance SELECT VAR_POP(Marks) FROM Results;

RANK() Assigns rank (window function) Advanced topic using OVER() clause

PERCENTILE_CONT() Finds percentile (advanced analytics) Used in window/analytic queries

Note: These may require advanced SQL engines (not standard in MySQL).

🧩 5. JSON Functions

Used to parse and extract JSON data (available in modern DBs like PostgreSQL, MySQL 5.7+, etc.)

Function Description Example

Extracts value from

JSON_EXTRACT(json, path) JSON_EXTRACT('{"name":"shahida"}', '$.name');
JSON

JSON_ARRAY() Creates JSON array JSON_ARRAY(1,2,'text');

JSON_OBJECT() Creates a JSON object JSON_OBJECT('id', 1, 'name', 'Shahida');

🔁 6. Conversion Functions

Used to convert data types or formats.

Function Description Example

CAST(expr AS type) Converts to specific data type CAST(10.99 AS INT) → 10

CONVERT(expr, type) Another way to convert CONVERT('2025-06-11', DATE)

🔄 7. Datatype Functions

These are used to check or transform datatype values.

Function Description Example

TYPEOF() (some DBs) Returns datatype of value SELECT TYPEOF('hello'); → text

ISNUMERIC() Checks if value is numeric SELECT ISNUMERIC('123'); → 1

ISDATE() (T-SQL) Checks if value is a valid date SELECT ISDATE('2025-06-11'); → 1

✅ Quick Recap
Category Examples

String UPPER(), LTRIM(), CONCAT()

Date/Time NOW(), DATEDIFF(), DATE_ADD()

Numeric ROUND(), ABS(), CEIL()

Statistical STDDEV(), RANK() (advanced)

JSON JSON_EXTRACT(), JSON_OBJECT()

Conversion CAST(), CONVERT()

Datatype ISNUMERIC(), TYPEOF()

Would you like:

 ✅ Practice examples

 📄 PDF Notes

 🧠 Flashcards for revision

 💡 Use-case examples with real data?

Let me know how you'd like to continue!

Here’s a complete, clear, and beginner-friendly explanation of Views in SQL, including the four
operations you asked about:

‍What is a VIEW in SQL?

A View in SQL is a virtual table based on a SQL SELECT query. It doesn’t store data itself — it just
displays data from one or more real tables.

Think of it like a window to your data, allowing you to simplify complex queries, restrict access to
specific columns, or reuse logic.

✅ Advantages of Using Views

 Simplifies complex SQL queries

 Provides data security by hiding sensitive columns

 Allows logical data independence

 Makes code reusable and readable

1. CREATE VIEW
Used to create a new view from one or more tables.

Syntax:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

Example:

CREATE VIEW StudentScores AS

SELECT Name, Marks

FROM Students

WHERE Marks > 75;

Now you can simply:

SELECT * FROM StudentScores;

🔁 2. UPDATE VIEW

To modify a view (its logic, not the data), you can:

 Use CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW in MySQL, PostgreSQL.

 Use ALTER VIEW in SQL Server/Oracle.

Syntax (MySQL / PostgreSQL):

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW StudentScores AS

SELECT Name, Marks

FROM Students

WHERE Marks > 80;

Note: You cannot add/remove columns directly using UPDATE; instead, you must recreate or replace
the view.

✏️3. RENAME VIEW

Used to rename an existing view.

Syntax (PostgreSQL):

ALTER VIEW old_view_name RENAME TO new_view_name;

Example:
ALTER VIEW StudentScores RENAME TO TopStudents;

In MySQL, you can use:

RENAME TABLE old_view_name TO new_view_name;

❌ 4. DELETE (DROP) VIEW

Removes a view completely from the database.

Syntax:

DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:

DROP VIEW StudentScores;

🧠 Summary Table

Operation Command Purpose

Create View CREATE VIEW Create a new virtual table

Update View CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW / ALTER VIEW Modify view logic

Rename View ALTER VIEW ... RENAME TO Rename an existing view

Delete View DROP VIEW Remove the view from database

Would you like:

 A PDF of SQL View operations

 Some practice queries

 Or real-world use cases (like in banking, HR, e-commerce)?

Let me know how you'd like to go deeper!

Here’s a complete and easy-to-understand explanation of Indexes and Subqueries in SQL, including
all the topics you mentioned:

📚 Part 1: SQL Indexes

🔍 What is an Index in SQL?

An Index is a database object that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a table.

 It works like an index in a book: speeds up search, but doesn’t change the data.

 Indexes are created on one or more columns.

🔹 1. CREATE INDEX

Used to create a normal (non-unique) index.

Syntax:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example:

CREATE INDEX idx_student_name

ON Students (Name);

🔹 2. DROP INDEX

Used to remove an existing index.

MySQL Syntax:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;

PostgreSQL/SQL Server:

DROP INDEX index_name;

🔹 3. SHOW INDEXES

Used to view existing indexes on a table.

MySQL Syntax:

SHOW INDEX FROM table_name;

🔹 4. UNIQUE INDEX

Prevents duplicate values in the indexed column(s).

Syntax:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name);

Example:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX idx_email

ON Users (Email);
🔹 5. Clustered vs Non-Clustered Index

Feature Clustered Index Non-Clustered Index

Definition Sorts & stores data rows physically Separate structure that points to the data

Per Table Only one allowed Multiple allowed

Access Speed Faster for range queries Faster for exact lookups

Example Use Primary key fields Frequently searched non-key columns

✅ Example in SQL Server:

-- Clustered Index

CREATE CLUSTERED INDEX idx_id

ON Students(ID);

-- Non-Clustered Index

CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX idx_name

ON Students(Name);

📚 Part 2: Subqueries in SQL

🔍 What is a Subquery?

A subquery is a query inside another query, usually inside:

 WHERE, FROM, or SELECT clauses.

 Also called an inner query.

🔹 1. Simple (Nested) Subquery

A subquery executed once, and result is passed to outer query.

Example:

SELECT Name

FROM Students

WHERE Marks > (SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Students);

✅ Returns students who scored above average.

🔹 2. Correlated Subquery

A subquery that depends on the outer query for its value, and runs once for each row.
Example:

SELECT Name

FROM Students S1

WHERE Marks > (

SELECT AVG(Marks)

FROM Students S2

WHERE S1.Class = S2.Class

);

✅ Returns students who scored above average in their own class.

✅ Difference: Nested vs Correlated

Feature Nested Subquery Correlated Subquery

Execution Runs once Runs for each row in outer query

Dependency Independent of outer query Depends on outer query

Speed Faster Slower (can be optimized)

🧠 Bonus Tip:

Subqueries can be used with:

 IN, EXISTS, ANY, ALL, =, <, > etc.

✅ Summary Chart

Concept Purpose

Index Speed up searches on a table

CREATE INDEX Adds an index on specified columns

UNIQUE INDEX Prevents duplicates

Clustered Index Sorts physical table, only one allowed

Non-Clustered Index Points to data separately, multiple allowed

Subquery Query inside another query

Nested Subquery Runs once, returns single/multiple values

Correlated Subquery Depends on outer row, runs per row

Would you like:

 ✍️Practice Problems on Subqueries & Indexes?

 📄 A PDF of this summary?

 🧠 Short Quiz to test your understanding?

Let me know!