Introduction to Robotics

Robotics is a multi-disciplinary field that integrates principles of mechanical

engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and artificial intelligence to
design and create robots. A robot is essentially a machine that can perform tasks
autonomously or semi-autonomously, often by interacting with its environment
through sensors, actuators, and decision-making algorithms. The aim of robotics is
to make processes more efficient, safer, and less dependent on human intervention.
Robots are designed to execute specific tasks that are either too dangerous,
repetitive, or complex for humans.

Brief History of Robotics

The history of robotics is deeply intertwined with human innovation in automation

and machinery:

 Ancient Civilizations: The concept of automata or self-moving machines

dates back to ancient Greece, China, and Egypt. Philosophers and engineers
like Hero of Alexandria developed early machines powered by water, steam,
and air. These were mainly mechanical devices that mimicked living beings or
did specific tasks.
 Middle Ages and Renaissance: The Renaissance era saw advancements in
mechanical devices, with inventors like Leonardo da Vinci sketching designs
for mechanical men and other automata. These were never built, but they laid
the groundwork for future developments.
 Industrial Revolution (18th–19th centuries): During the Industrial
Revolution, automated machines were introduced to streamline
manufacturing processes. This led to the first instances of mechanical devices
designed for industrial production.
 20th Century: The term "robot" was popularized in 1920 by the Czech
playwright Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The
first industrial robots were introduced in the 1950s. In 1956, George Devol
and Joseph Engelberger developed the Unimate, the first programmable
robotic arm, which was used in General Motors' factories for material
handling.
 Recent Decades: With the advent of microelectronics, artificial intelligence,
and machine learning, robotics has experienced rapid growth. Robots are
now used not only in manufacturing but also in areas such as healthcare,
space exploration, military defense, and domestic environments.
Components of Robotics

Robots are complex systems made up of several key components, each serving a
specific function to allow the robot to perform tasks efficiently and autonomously:

1. Mechanical Components: These components form the physical structure of

the robot and define its ability to move and manipulate objects. These
include:
o Joints: The points at which the robot's links (segments) are connected
and where motion occurs. These can be of various types (rotational or
translational).
o Links: The rigid parts of a robot that connect the joints and define the
robot's overall shape and size.
 o Actuators: Devices responsible for moving the robot's joints. Common
actuators include electric motors, hydraulic cylinders, and pneumatic
systems.
o Frames: The base structure that holds the robot's components
together.
2. Sensors: Sensors allow the robot to perceive its environment. These devices
gather data that the robot uses to make decisions or adjust its actions. Some
key sensors include:
o Proximity sensors (detect objects nearby),
o Cameras (used for vision systems),
o LIDAR (for distance measurement),
o Force/torque sensors (to detect forces and enable precise
manipulation),
o Temperature and pressure sensors.
3. Actuators: Actuators convert the robot's internal signals (from the control
system) into physical motion. They are the "muscles" of the robot, controlling
movement and force. Common types include:
o Electric motors for rotational movement.
o Hydraulic actuators for high force applications.
o Pneumatic actuators for lightweight tasks.
4. Control System: This is the brain of the robot, processing inputs from
sensors and making decisions on how the robot should respond. It can be a
simple pre-programmed controller or a more sophisticated AI system that
allows the robot to learn and adapt.
5. Power Supply: The robot needs energy to operate. This could come from:
o Batteries (often lithium-ion) for mobile robots,
o External power sources for industrial robots,
o Solar power for autonomous outdoor robots.
6. Software: The software runs the robot’s operations and controls how it
interacts with its environment. It includes both low-level controls (for basic
 movements) and high-level decision-making algorithms, often involving AI or
machine learning models.

Classification of Robots

Robots can be classified based on several factors, including their function, mobility,
control, and design:

1. By Function:

 Industrial Robots: Primarily used in manufacturing environments for

repetitive tasks such as assembly, welding, painting, and material handling.
Examples include robotic arms in car assembly lines.
 Service Robots: Designed to perform tasks that assist humans, such as
medical robots, delivery robots, and household robots (e.g., Roomba). They
are typically autonomous or semi-autonomous.
 Exploration Robots: Robots used for exploration in environments where
humans cannot easily go, such as space (NASA's Curiosity rover) or
underwater (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, AUVs).
 Military Robots: Used for surveillance, bomb disposal, or even combat (e.g.,
unmanned aerial vehicles, or UAVs).

2. By Mobility:

 Stationary Robots: Fixed robots that perform tasks in one location, such as
robotic arms in factories.
 Mobile Robots: Robots capable of moving through their environment. These
include autonomous vehicles, drones, and mobile service robots like delivery
robots or robotic vacuum cleaners.

3. By Control:

 Teleoperated Robots: Robots that are controlled remotely by a human

operator. Examples include robots used in bomb disposal or in hazardous
environments.
 Autonomous Robots: Robots that operate without human intervention,
making decisions based on sensors and algorithms. Examples include self-
driving cars and autonomous drones.

4. By Design:
  Articulated Robots: Robots that resemble human arms with multiple joints.
Common in industrial automation.
 Cartesian Robots: Robots that operate on the X, Y, and Z axes (linear
movement). They are simple and ideal for applications requiring precise
linear motion.
 SCARA Robots: These robots have a horizontal arm with rotational
movement, often used for assembly tasks.
 Delta Robots: Parallel robots known for high-speed performance and used
primarily in pick-and-place applications.

Workspace and Work Envelope

 Workspace: This refers to the area in which a robot can operate. The
workspace depends on the robot's design, such as its size, the range of its
actuators, and the number of degrees of freedom (DOF) the robot has. For
example, an industrial robotic arm’s workspace is the area it can reach and
manipulate objects within.
 Work Envelope: This is the physical boundary that defines the robot’s
movement area. It's essentially the "volume" that the robot can access. In the
case of robotic arms, this envelope will depend on the range of motion of the
joints and the length of the arm's segments.

Motion of Robotic Arm

The movement of a robotic arm is defined by its joints, which may move in different
ways:

 Rotational Joints (Revolute Joints): These joints allow parts of the robot to
rotate around a fixed axis. They are most common in robotic arms.
 Translational Joints (Prismatic Joints): These allow linear motion (sliding
along an axis).

The movement of robotic arms can be analyzed using forward kinematics (to
calculate the end-effector’s position given the joint parameters) and inverse
kinematics (to calculate the necessary joint movements to achieve a desired
position of the end-effector).

End Effectors and Their Types

End-effectors are devices attached to the robot arm, responsible for interacting with
objects in the robot’s environment. They are the "hands" or "tools" of the robot.
Types of end-effectors include:

 Grippers: Mechanical devices designed to grasp objects. They can be multi-

fingered, vacuum-based, or magnetic.
 Welding Guns: Used in robotic welding applications.
 Spray Guns: Used for tasks like painting or coating.
 Surgical Instruments: Specialized tools for use in robotic-assisted surgery.
 Cutting Tools: Robots equipped with tools for tasks like cutting or drilling.

Service Robots and Their Applications

Service robots are designed to assist humans in performing everyday tasks. They
are used across various industries and environments:

1. Healthcare: Robots like the da Vinci Surgical System assist surgeons in

performing complex procedures with high precision. Rehabilitation robots
help patients recover motor functions after injuries, and prosthetic limbs
use robotics to restore mobility.
2. Domestic Services: Robots like Roomba (vacuum cleaners) and Robomow
(lawn mowers) perform household chores. In addition, robotic assistants
help with cooking, cleaning, or elderly care.
3. Logistics and Delivery: Autonomous delivery robots, drones, and automated
guided vehicles (AGVs) are used for package delivery, warehouse
management, and food delivery.
4. Security and Surveillance: Robots designed to patrol and monitor areas,
such as autonomous security drones or robotic security guards.
5. Education and Entertainment: Educational robots help teach coding and
STEM concepts. Robots like Jibo and Pepper serve as companions, enhancing
human-robot interaction.