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Mervyn G. Marasinghe • Kenneth J. Koehler

Statistical Data Analysis

Using SAS
Intermediate Statistical Methods
Second Edition

123
Mervyn G. Marasinghe Kenneth J. Koehler
Department of Statistics Department of Statistics
Iowa State University Iowa State University
Ames, IA, USA Ames, IA, USA

Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com.

ISSN 1431-875X ISSN 2197-4136 (electronic)

Springer Texts in Statistics
ISBN 978-3-319-69238-8 ISBN 978-3-319-69239-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69239-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959325

The program code and output for this book was generated using SAS software, Version 9.4 of the SAS
System for Windows. Copyright © 2002–2017 SAS Institute Inc. SAS and all other SAS Institute Inc.
product or service names are registered trademarks or trademarks of SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.

1st edition: © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

2nd edition: © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
 Preface

One of the hazards of writing a book based on a software system is that the release
of a newer version of the software on which the book is based may supersede the
appearance of the book in print. This happened to the authors with the publication of
the earlier edition of this book. However, with a large and well-developed software
system like SAS, this is not really an issue, particularly for the beginning user. Be-
cause of its complexity and the availability of a variety of analytical tools, the task
of learning SAS and then mastering it for everyday use for data analysis has become
a long-term project. That is what we found with the earlier edition. Although it was
based on SAS Version 9.1, we find that the earlier version is still in use today partic-
ularly as a reference and also by international SAS users to whom a later version of
SAS may not be available. The new edition is based on the current version of SAS,
Version 9.4, although it was released almost 4 years ago.
As discussed in the preface of the first edition, the aim of this book is to teach
how to use the SAS software system for statistical analysis of data. While the book
is intended to be used as a textbook in a second course in statistical methods taught
primarily to advanced undergraduates in statistics and graduate students in many
other disciplines that involve the use of statistics for data analysis, it would be a
valuable source of information for researchers in the academic setting as well as
professionals in the industry and business that use the SAS system in their work.
In particular, data analysis has become an important tool in the general area of data
science now being offered as a separate area of study.
The style of presentation of material in the revised book is the same as before:
introduction of a brief theoretical and/or methodological description of each topic
under discussion including the statistical model used if applicable and presentation
of a problem as an application, followed by a SAS analysis of the data provided and
a discussion of the results.
The primary reason for planning this revision is the fact that SAS has made a
large number of changes beginning with SAS Version 9.2, as well as the introduction
of a new system of statistical graphics that essentially replaced the SAS/GRAPH
system that existed prior to that version. This necessitated modifications to most of
the SAS programs used in the book as well as the rewriting of an entire chapter. The
second reason was the incorporation of the ODS system for managing the tabular and
graphical output produced from SAS procedures. Not only did this require the repro-
duction of all output presented in the older version of the textbook, it also required
adding additional textual material explaining these changes and the new commands
that were required to use the new facility.
This book is intended for use as the textbook in a second course in applied statis-
tics that covers topics in multiple regression and analysis of variance at an intermedi-
ate level. Generally, students enrolled in such courses are primarily graduate majors
or advanced undergraduate students from a variety of disciplines. These students typ-
ically have taken an introductory-level statistical methods course that requires the use
of a software system such as SAS for performing statistical analysis. Thus, students
are expected to have an understanding of basic concepts of statistical inference such
as estimation and hypothesis testing when they begin on a course based on this book.
While the same approach that was used in the first edition is continued, we have
rewritten material in almost every chapter; added new examples; completely replaced
a chapter; added a new chapter based on SAS procedures for the analysis of nonlinear
and generalized linear models; updated all SAS output, including graphics, that ap-
pears in the previous version; added more exercise problems to several chapters; and
included completely new material on SAS templates in the appendix. These changes
necessitated the book to be lengthened by about 200 pages.
We started with a more gentle introductory example but proceed quickly to
present more advance material and techniques, especially concerning the SAS data
step. Important features such as data step programming, pointers, and line-hold spec-
ifiers are described in detail. Chapter 3 which originally contained descriptions of
how to use the SAS/GRAPH package was completely rewritten to describe new Sta-
tistical Graphics (SG) procedures that are based on ODS Graphics.
The basic theory of statistical methods covered in the text is discussed briefly and
then is extended beyond the elementary level. Particular attention has been given to
topics that are usually not included in introductory courses. These include discussion
of models involving random effects, covariance analysis, variable subset selection
methods in regression methods, categorical data analysis, graphical tools for residual
diagnostics, and the analysis of nonlinear and generalized linear models. We provide
just sufficient information to facilitate the use of these techniques without burgeoning
theoretical details. A thorough knowledge of advanced theoretical material such as
the theory of the linear model or the theory of maximum likelihood estimation is
neither assumed nor required to assimilate the material presented.
SAS programs and SAS program outputs are used extensively to supplement
the description of the analysis methods. Example data sets are taken from the areas
of biological and physical sciences and engineering. Exercises are included in each
chapter. Most exercises involve constructing SAS programs for the analysis of given
observational or experimental data. Complete text files of all SAS examples used in
the book can be downloaded from the Springer website for this book. Text versions
of all data sets used in examples and exercises are also available from the website.
Statistical tables are not reprinted in the book.
 The first author has taught a one-semester course based on material from this
book for many years. The coverage depends on the preparation and maturity level
of students enrolled in a particular semester. In a class mainly composed of graduate
students from disciplines other than statistics, with adequate knowledge of statisti-
cal methods and the use of SAS, the instructor may select more advanced topics for
coverage and skip most of the introductory material. Otherwise, in a mixed class of
undergraduate and graduate students with little experience using SAS, the coverage
is usually 5 weeks of introduction to SAS, 5 weeks on regression and graphics, and
5 weeks of ANOVA applications. This amounts to approximately 60% of the mate-
rial in the textbook. The structure of sections in the chapters facilitates this kind of
selective coverage.
The first author wishes to thank Professor Kenneth J. Koehler, the former chair
of the Department of Statistics at Iowa State University, for agreeing to be a coauthor
of this book and also to write Chap. 7. He has taught several courses based on the
material for that chapter, and some of the examples are taken from his consulting
projects.

Mervyn G. Marasinghe
Associate Professor Emeritus
Department of Statistics
Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA

Kenneth J. Koehler
Professor
Department of Statistics
Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
 Contents

1 Introduction to the SAS Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Basic Language: A Summary of Rules and Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Creating SAS Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 The INPUT Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 SAS Data Step Programming Statements and Their Uses . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Data Step Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.7 More on INPUT Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.7.1 Use of Pointer Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.7.2 The trailing @ Line-Hold Specifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7.3 The trailing @@ Line-Hold Specifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.7.4 Use of RETAIN Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.7.5 The Use of Line Pointer Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.8 Using SAS Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2 More on SAS Programming and Some Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

2.1 More on the DATA and PROC Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.1.1 Reading Data from Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.1.2 Combining SAS Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.1.3 Saving and Retrieving Permanent SAS Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.1.4 User-Defined Informats and Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.5 Creating SAS Data Sets in Procedure Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2 SAS Procedures for Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.2.1 The UNIVARIATE Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.2.2 The FREQ Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.3 Some Useful Base SAS Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.3.1 The TABULATE Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.3.2 The REPORT Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3 Introduction to SAS Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Template-Based Graphics (SAS/ODS Graphics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3 SAS Statistical Graphics Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.3.1 The SGPLOT Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.3.2 The SGPANEL Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3.3 The SGSCATTER Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.4 ODS Graphics from Other SAS Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

4 Statistical Analysis of Regression Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

4.1 An Introduction to Simple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.1.1 Simple Linear Regression Using PROC REG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.1.2 Lack of Fit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.1.3 Diagnostic Use of Case Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.4 Prediction of New y Values Using Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.2 An Introduction to Multiple Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.2.1 Multiple Regression Analysis Using PROC REG . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.2.2 Case Statistics and Residual Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.3 Residual Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.2.4 Examining Relationships Among Regression Variables . . . . 243
4.3 Types of Sums of Squares Computed in PROC REG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.3.1 Model Comparison Technique and Extra Sum of Squares . . . 248
4.3.2 Types of Sums of Squares in SAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.4 Subset Selection Methods in Multiple Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.4.1 Subset Selection Using PROC REG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.4.2 Other Options Available in PROC REG for Model
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.5 Model Selection Using PROC GLMSELECT: Validation and
Cross-Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

5 Analysis of Variance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.1.1 Treatment Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.1.2 Experimental Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.1.3 Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.2 One-Way Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.2.1 Using PROC ANOVA to Analyze One-Way
Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.2.2 Making Preplanned (or A Priori) Comparisons Using
PROC GLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
5.2.3 Testing Orthogonal Polynomials Using Contrasts . . . . . . . . . 331
5.3 One-Way Analysis of Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.3.1 Using PROC GLM to Perform One-Way Covariance
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
 5.3.2 One-Way Covariance Analysis: Testing for Equal
Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
5.4 A Two-Way Factorial in a Completely Randomized Design . . . . . . . 355
5.4.1 Analysis of a Two-Way Factorial Using PROC GLM . . . . . . 358
5.4.2 Residual Analysis and Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.5 Two-Way Factorial: Analysis of Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
5.6 Two-Way Factorial: Unequal Sample Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.7 Two-Way Classification: Randomized Complete Block Design . . . . . 386
5.7.1 Using PROC GLM to Analyze a RCBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
5.7.2 Using PROC GLM to Test for Nonadditivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
5.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

6 Analysis of Variance: Random and Mixed Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . 419

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
6.2 One-Way Random Effects Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
6.2.1 Using PROC GLM to Analyze One-Way Random Effects
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
6.2.2 Using PROC MIXED to Analyze One-Way Random
Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.3 Two-Way Crossed Random Effects Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
6.3.1 Using PROC GLM and PROC MIXED to Analyze
Two-Way Crossed Random Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
6.3.2 Randomized Complete Block Design: Blocking When
Treatment Factors Are Random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.4 Two-Way Nested Random Effects Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
6.4.1 Using PROC GLM to Analyze Two-Way Nested Random
Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
6.4.2 Using PROC MIXED to Analyze Two-Way Nested
Random Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
6.5 Two-Way Mixed Effects Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
6.5.1 Two-Way Mixed Effects Model: Randomized Complete
Block Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
6.5.2 Two-Way Mixed Effects Model: Crossed Classification . . . . 471
6.5.3 Two-Way Mixed Effects Model: Nested Classification . . . . . 482
6.6 Models with Random and Nested Effects for More Complex
Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
6.6.1 Models for Nested Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
6.6.2 Models for Split-Plot Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
6.6.3 Analysis of Split-Plot Experiments Using
PROC GLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
6.6.4 Analysis of Split-Plot Experiments Using PROC MIXED . . 509
6.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
7 Beyond Regression and Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.2 Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.2.2 Growth Curve Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
7.2.3 Pharmacokinetic Application of a Nonlinear Model . . . . . . . 537
7.2.4 A Model for Biochemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
7.3 Generalized Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
7.3.2 Logistic Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
7.3.3 Poisson Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
7.4 Generalized Linear Models with Overdispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
7.4.2 Binomial and Poisson Models with Overdispersion . . . . . . . . 576
7.4.3 Negative Binomial Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
7.5 Further Extensions of Generalized Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
7.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
7.5.2 Poisson Regression with Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
7.5.3 Logistic Regression with Multiple Response
Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Appendix A SAS Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
A.1.1 What Are Templates? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
A.1.2 Where Are the SAS Default Templates Located? . . . . . . . . . . 624
A.1.3 More on Template Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
A.2 Templates and Their Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
A.2.1 Style Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
A.2.2 Style Elements and Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
A.2.3 Tabular Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
A.2.4 Simple Table Template Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
A.2.5 Other Types of Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
A.3 Customizing Graphs by Editing Graphical Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
A.4 Creating Customized Graphs by Extracting Code from Standard
Graphical Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

Appendix B Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
1
Introduction to the SAS Language

1.1 Introduction
The SAS system is a computer package program for performing statistical
analysis of data. The system incorporates data manipulation and in-
put/output capabilities as well as an extensive collection of procedures
for statistical analysis of data. The SAS system achieves its versatility by
providing users with the ability to write their own program statements to ma-
nipulate data as well as call up SAS routines called procedures for performing
major statistical analysis on specified data sets. The user-written program
statements usually perform data modifications such as transforming values
of existing variables, creating new variables using values of existing variables,
or selecting subsets of observations. The statements and the syntax available
to perform these manipulations are quite extensive so that these comprise an
entire programming language. Once data sets have thus been prepared, they
are used as input to statistical procedures that performs the desired analysis
of the data. SAS will perform any statistical analysis that the user correctly
specifies using appropriate SAS procedure statements.
When SAS programs are run under the SAS windowing environment, the
source code is entered in the SAS Program Editor window and submitted
for execution. A Log window which shows the details of execution of the
SAS code and an Output window which shows the results are also parts of
this system. Traditionally, results of a SAS procedure were displayed in the
output window in the listing format using monospace fonts with which users
of SAS in its previous versions are more familiar. SAS provides the user the
ability to manage where (the destination) and in what format the output is
produced and displayed, via the SAS Output Delivery System (ODS). For
example, output from executing a SAS procedure may be directed to a pdf or
an html formatted file, the content to be included in the output selected and
2 1 Introduction to the SAS Language

formatted by the user to produce a desired appearance (called an ODS style).

Thus ODS allows the user the flexibility in presenting the output from SAS
procedures in a style of user’s own choice. Beginning with SAS Version 9.3,
instead of routing the output to a listing destination in the output window,
SAS windowing system is set up by default to use an html destination and for
the resulting html file to be automatically displayed using an internal browser.
The user may modify these default settings by selecting Tools ➡ Options
➡ Preferences from the main menu system on the SAS window. Figure 1.1
shows the default settings under the Results tab of the Preferences window.

Fig. 1.1. Screenshot of the results tab on the preferences dialog box

Note the check boxes that are selected on this dialog. Thus the creation of
html output is enabled by default, while the creation of the listing output
is not. Also note that the style selected (from a drop-down list) is Htmlblue,
the default style associated with the html destination. An ODS style is a
description of the appearance and structure of tables and graphs in the ODS
output and how these are integrated in the output and is specified using a
style template. The Htmlblue style is an all-color style that is designed to
integrate tables and statistical graphics and present these as a single entity.
Note that the Use ODS Graphics box is checked meaning that the creation of
ODS Graphics, the functionality of automatically creating statistical graphics,
is also enabled. This is equivalent to including a ODS Graphics On statement
within the SAS program, whenever ODS Graphics are to be produced by
default or as a result of a user request initiated from a procedure that supports
ODS Graphics. The following example illustrates the default ODS output
produced by SAS.
 1.1 Introduction 3

data biology;
input Id Sex $ Age Year Height Weight;
BMI=703*Weight/Height**2;
datalines;
7389 M 24 4 69.2 132.5
3945 F 19 2 58.5 112.0
4721 F 20 2 65.3 98.6
1835 F 24 4 62.8 102.5
9541 M 21 3 72.5 152.3
2957 M 22 3 67.3 145.8
2158 F 21 2 59.8 104.5
4296 F 25 3 62.5 132.5
4824 M 23 4 74.5 184.4
5736 M 22 3 69.1 149.5
8765 F 19 1 67.3 130.5
5734 F 18 1 64.3 110.2
4529 F 19 2 68.3 127.4
8341 F 20 3 66.5 132.6
4672 M 21 3 72.2 150.7
4823 M 22 4 68.8 128.5
5639 M 21 3 67.6 133.6
6547 M 24 2 69.5 155.4
8472 M 21 2 76.5 205.1
6327 M 20 1 70.2 135.4
8472 F 20 4 66.8 142.6
4875 M 20 1 74.2 160.4
;

proc means data=biology mean std min max maxdec=3;

class Sex;
var BMI;
title "Biology class: BMI Statistics by Gender";
run;

Fig. 1.2. Illustrating ODS output

An Introductory SAS Program

The SAS code displayed in Fig. 1.2 is used here to give the reader a quick
introduction to a complete SAS program. The raw data consists of values for
several variables measured on students enrolled in an elementary biology class
at a college during a particular semester. In this program an input statement
reads raw data from data lines embedded in the program (called instream
data) and creates a SAS data set named biology.
The list input style used in this program scans the data lines to ac-
cess values for each of the variables named in the input statement. No-
tice that the data values are aligned in columns but also are separated by
(at least) one blank. The “$” symbol used in the input statement indicates
that the variable named Sex contains character values. The SAS expression
703*Weight/Height**2 calculates a new value using the values of the two
variables Weight and Height obtained from the current data line being pro-
cessed and assigns it to a (newly created) variable named BMI representing
the body mass index of the individual (the conversion factor 703 is required
as the two variables Weight and Height were not recorded in metric units
as needed by the definition of body mass index). Once the SAS data set is
created and saved in a temporary folder, the SAS procedure named MEANS
4 1 Introduction to the SAS Language

is used to produce an analysis containing some statistics for the new variable
BMI separately for the females and males in the class. Figure 1.3 displays a
reproduction of the default html output displayed by the Results Viewer in
SAS and illustrates the Htmlblue style.

Biology class: BMI Statistics by Gender

The MEANS Procedure

Analysis Variable : BMI

N
Sex Obs Mean Std Dev Minimum Maximum
F 10 20.366 2.341 16.256 23.846

M 12 21.236 1.775 19.085 24.638

Fig. 1.3. ODS output

In most of the SAS examples used in this book, the pdf-formatted ODS
version of the resulting output will be used to display the output. An ODS
statement (not shown in all SAS programs) will be used to direct the output
produced to a pdf destination. Note carefully that since the destination is
different from html, the output produced is in a different style than Htmlblue;
that is, the output is formatted for printing rather than for being displayed
in a browser window.
An alternative way of running SAS programs for producing ODS-formatted
output is to use the SAS Enterprise Guide (SAS/EG). SAS/EG is a point-
and-click interface for managing data, performing a statistical analysis, and
generating reports. Behind the scenes, SAS/EG generates SAS programs that
are submitted to SAS, and the results returned back to SAS/EG. Since the
focus of this book is SAS programming, general instructions on how to use
SAS/EG is not discussed here. However, SAS/EG includes a full programming
interface that uses a color-coded, syntax-checking SAS language editor that
can be used to write, edit, and submit SAS programs and is available to SAS
programmers as an alternative to using the SAS windowing environment.
Further, the output in SAS/EG is automatically produced in ODS format,
and the user can select options for the output to be directed to a destination
such as a pdf or an html file.
Most statistical analysis does not require knowledge of the considerable
number of features available in the SAS system. However, even a simple anal-
ysis will involve the use of some of the extensive capabilities of the language.
Thus, to be able to write SAS programs effectively, it is necessary to learn at
least a few SAS statement structures and how they work. The following SAS
program contains features that are common to many SAS programs.
 1.1 Introduction 5

SAS Example A1

The data to be analyzed in this program consist of gross income, tax, age,
and state of individuals in a group of people. The only analysis required is
to obtain a SAS listing of all observations in the data set. The statements
necessary to accomplish this task are given in the program for SAS Example
A1 shown in Fig. 1.4.

data first ; 2
input (Income Tax Age State)(@4 2*5.2 2. $2.);
datalines ; 1
123546750346535IA
234765480895645IA
348578650595431IA
345786780576541NB
543567511268532IA
231785870678528NB
356985650756543NB
765745630789525IA
865345670256823NB
786567340897534NB
895651120504545IA
785650750654529NB
458595650456834IA
345678560912728NB
346685960675138IA
546825750562527IA
;
proc print ; 3
title ‘SAS Listing of Tax data’;
run;

Fig. 1.4. SAS Example A1: program

In this program those lines that end with a semicolon can be identified
as SAS statements. The statements that follow the data first; statement
up to and including the semicolon appearing by itself in a line signaling the
end of the lines of data, cause a SAS data set to be created. Names for
the SAS variables to be created in the data set and the location of their
values on each line of data are specified in the input statement. The raw
data are embedded in the input stream (i.e., physically inserted within the
SAS program) preceded by a datalines; statement 1 . The proc print;
performs the requested analysis of the SAS data set created, namely, to print
a listing of the entire SAS data set.
As observed in the SAS Example A1, SAS programs are usually made up
of two kinds of statements:
• Statements that lead to the creation of SAS data sets
• Statements that lead to the analysis of SAS data sets
The occurrence of a group of statements used for creating a SAS data set
(called a SAS data step) can be recognized because it begins with a data
6 1 Introduction to the SAS Language

statement 2 , and a group of statements used for analyzing a SAS data set
(called a SAS proc step) can be recognized because it begins with a proc
statement 3 . There may be several of each kind of these steps in a SAS pro-
gram that logically defines a data analysis task.
SAS interprets and executes these steps in their order of appearance in a
program. Therefore, the user must make sure that there is a logical progression
in the operations carried out. Thus, a proc step must follow the data step
that creates the SAS data set to be analyzed by that proc step. Although
statements in a data step are executed sequentially, in order that computations
are carried out on the data values as expected, statements within the step
must also satisfy this requirement, in general, except for certain declarative
or nonexecutable statements. For example, an input statement that defines
variables must precede executable SAS statements, such as SAS programming
statements, that references those variable names.
One very important characteristic of the execution of a SAS data step is
that the statements in a data step are executed and an observation written
to the output SAS data set, repeatedly for every line of data input in cyclic
fashion, until every data line is processed. A detailed discussion of data step
processing is given in Sect. 1.6.
The first statement following the data statement 2 in the data step usually
(but not always) is an input statement, especially when raw data are being
accessed. The input statement used here is a moderately complex example
of a formatted input statement, described in detail in Sect. 1.4. The symbols
and informats used to read the data values for the variables Income, Tax,
Age, and State from the data lines in SAS Example A1 and their effects are
itemized as follows:
• @4 causes SAS to begin reading each data line at column 4.
• 2*5.2 reads data values for Income and Tax from columns 4–8 and 9–13,
respectively, using the informat 5.2 twice, that is, two decimal places are
assumed for each value.
• 2. reads the data value for Age from columns 14 and 15 as a whole number
(i.e., a number without a fraction portion) using the informat 2.
• $2. reads the data value for State from columns 16 and 17 as a character
string of length 2, using the informat $2.
A semicolon symbol “;” appearing by itself in the first column in a data line
signals the end of the lines of raw data supplied instream in the current data
step. On its encounter, SAS proceeds to complete the creation of the SAS data
set named first by closing the file. The proc print; 3 that follows the data
step signals the beginning of a proc step. The SAS data set processed in this
proc step is, by default, the data set created immediately preceding it (in this
program the SAS data set first was the only one created). Again, by default,
all variables and observations in the SAS data set will be processed in this
proc step.
The output from execution of the SAS program consists of two parts: the
SAS Log (see Fig. 1.5), which is a running commentary on the results of ex-
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
but through interest, and united under the best devised and organised
constitution that has ever been known. By the state’s systematic and
methodical mode of conquest for the sole object of preserving and
exploiting, military art was carried to the highest possible point, and
political skill and administrative talent united to bring together by force
the whole of the then known world into an empire organised by one
dominant city.
Roman policy consisted in turning the conquered nations into Roman
soldiers, and foreign princes and magistrates into Roman ministers, thus
strengthening the controlling power at the least possible expense.
Military art consisted in subjecting the bravest and strongest soldiers to
the strictest obedience, that is to say, in obtaining the greatest amount
of strength from the vast forces at command. All her wisdom was
exerted to increase her power and to spare herself. An institution of will,
a machine for conquest, a matter of organisation, the state occupied all
thought, absorbed all love, and claimed submission in every act and
institution.
The sway of personal interest and national egoism produces a
contempt for humanity. The human species, when unconquered, is
looked upon as material for conquest, conquered it is a prey to be made
use of and abused. Slaves are trampled upon with atrocious cruelty,
entire nations are destroyed, vanquished kings are led in triumph and
put to death.
The gods are abstractions, and utterly without poetry, such as calm
reflection discerns in the humblest agricultural or domestic operations,
scourges adored through fear, foreign gods received into the temple
through interested motives as vanquished foes were received into the
city, and subject to the Jupiter of the Capitol as nations were to Rome.
The priests were laymen divided into classes, and officiated only under
the authority of the senate, which regulated all expiatory ceremonies
and alone, with the people, could make innovations. Worship consisted
of minute ceremonies, scrupulously observed because all poetical and
philosophical spirit which is the interpreter of symbols, was wanting;
dull, unilluminated reason attaching itself only to the letter. The senate
used religion as a political machine, and like all else it was but an
instrument of government.
 In the world of art we find nothing indigenous, except family
memoirs, written in the interests of a race, dry chronicles drawn up for
public use, rituals, account books, collections of laws, books of moral
sayings, memoranda of political satires—in short, government
documents, maxims of conduct, and political essays.
Everything else is foreign, imported, or conquered. The theatre
originating in Etruria and in Greece was simply imitated and then
forsaken for bear fights which later became processions, magnificent in
weapons and ornaments, parades of triumph and war. Monuments of art
were pillaged in Greece, and in Cicero’s time were still despised; while in
poetry, there was no original fiction, no invention of characters. The only
things in which the national genius rivals the imitation of foreign models
are oratory,—the arm of the forum,—satire,—versified pleading and
instruction in morals,—and history, the record of political facts, which,
however, is at Rome only a collection of memoirs or an exercise in
oratory; and all these things are concerned with the practical and with
government. If Rome possessed poets, it was solely when her particular
genius gave way before a new movement. The only entertainments she
invented were triumphs and games in the circus, where victory was
continued by the humiliation and death of the vanquished, where the
spectator was the conqueror and assassin.
All scientific writings were translations. There were compilers such as
Varro and Pliny, imitators such as Cicero and Lucretius; some small
advance was made in agriculture, rhetoric, medicine, and architecture—
all applied sciences. In the place of metaphysics, the clumsy physics of
Epicurus and of the stoics were copied. The practical side of philosophy
was alone studied, moral philosophy, and that with a purely practical
object. The only strictly Roman science is jurisprudence, and that is
altogether practical and political. It is, moreover, so long as it remains
Roman, but a collection of dry formulæ, a mere manual for lawyers and
not a branch of science.
From the character of Roman genius springs its history. The family
and religion being subordinate to the state, art and science being null,
or entirely practical, and the state having no other object than to
conquer and to organise what it had conquered, Roman history is the
history of conquest and its effects.
 The middle class was either ruined, or perished during the progress of
this great war. From the time of the Gracchi, besides a population of
poor people and freed slaves, there remained only a wealthy class,
wielding great power by reason of their immense riches, their command
of great armies, their control of taxation, and of the destinies of the
commonwealth in general. At first united but afterwards divided, at the
end of a century’s struggle one of these classes emerged victorious.
Thus power, founded by sheer force, passed to the armies, the
embodiment of force. In the meanwhile, the universe, depopulated and
ruined by conquest, by civil wars, by the pillage of the proconsuls, by
the demands of the imperial treasury, supplied no more soldiers. With
the fall of militarism, an oriental despotism, characterised by a cunning
administration, was founded. Through war and its results, conquerors
and conquered, nations and liberties, had all perished. Nothing remained
in force but a system of effete institutions under the caprice of a ruler
who was often hardly a man.
The ancient institution of the family disappeared under the influence
of Grecian ideas and oriental customs. The judicial dicta of lawyers and
prætors conflicted with the authority of the husband and father; civil
family ties became dissolved in excess of pleasures and love of
conquest. In spite of the laws of Augustus, marriages decreased, and
were only excuses for adultery and divorce. Mysticism, poverty, the
discouragement of the curials, added despair to the effects of
debauchery and created a contempt for life.
By these changes in domestic life and under the influence of foreign
philosophers, the Roman idea of property changed. First of all in the
hands of the father (mancipium), possessions next became a family
inheritance (dominium), and ended by belonging entirely to the
individual (proprietas). Though benefited in theory, in practice property
ceased to exist, because according to the law the emperor was master
over it, because the treasury took its fruits, because taxation, tyranny,
ignorance, and a growing depopulation rendered it sterile or reduced it
to nought.
The ancient religion assimilated with the religions of Greece and the
East, disappeared in the pantheon of the gods enlarged by dead
emperors, and there remained of it only official pomp and an excuse for
persecutions. The jealousy of despots, the degradation of servitude, the
loss of all interests and of all hope, the abuse of pleasures, the downfall
of Greece and of the East, extinguished all that was yet known of art
and science. The jurisconsults alone laid down a code of laws, the last
result of the spirit of organisation.
Thus, conquest, the fruit of Roman genius, destroyed both the genius
of peoples, and the peoples themselves; leaving behind it because it
was a system, a system of institutions on a dead foundation. But in this
debasement of every force and of every earthly hope, man took refuge
within himself. Helped by oriental mysticism, he discovered in a new
religion a new world.
This is what the modern philosophers have added to Livy. The
criticism commenced by him, renewed by Beaufort, nearly perfected by
Niebuhr, and the philosophy hidden under his eloquence, which was
turned by Machiavelli into a practical channel and is still imperfect in
Montesquieu, become each day more exact and more profound. The
corrections thus made honour those by whom they are made without
lowering those who suffer them. The first authors are the fathers of
science, and Livy alone has done more for Roman history than all those
who have desired to set him right.i

FOOTNOTES
 [4] Niebuhr’sh remarks on the dates of Livy’s history (Rom.
Hist. iv.) may be compared with the more common view given in
Smith’s Dictionary and elsewhere. I think the beginning of the
work must be placed in 29-24 b.c.; but adopting the idea that it
was originally divided into decades, the fact now demonstrated,
that it reached to a hundred and forty-second book, seems to
show that it was not left complete according to the author’s
intentions. It is also well remarked that the death of Drusus does
not furnish a point of sufficient importance for the termination of
the great epic of Roman history. This view is supported by the
interesting statement of Pliny, that in one of his latter books Livy
had declared: Satis jam sibi gloriæ quæsitum; et potuisse se
desinere, nisi animus inquies pasceretur opere. (Plin. Hist. Nat.
præf.) A period of more than forty years thus devoted to the
elaboration of a single work is not unparalleled. Froissart was
engaged forty years upon his Chronicles.

Roman Compass

(In the British Museum)

Roman Death Mask

CHAPTER XXXII. THE LAST YEARS OF

AUGUSTUS
 Octavian divorced his first two wives, the daughter of Publ.
Servilius, to whom he had been married at eighteen, and Clodia,
daughter of Antony’s wife Fulvia by her first husband P. Clodius the
triumvir, after a short period of wedded life; and a year after she had
borne him a daughter, Julia by name, he put away his third wife
Scribonia, being captivated by the charms of Livia, the wife of Ti.
Claudius Nero, who came into his house as his fourth wife with the
consent of her former husband. Her two sons, Tiberius (born 42 b.c.)
and Drusus, whom she brought into the world three months after
her union with Augustus, were brought up in the house of their
father Cl. Nero, but were received by Augustus into his own house
on the death of the former, who had appointed him their guardian.
The person who had the likeliest prospect of the succession
seemed to be M. Marcellus, the son of the emperor’s sister Octavia
by her first marriage. He was treated with the utmost distinction by
Augustus, who loaded him with honours in quick succession and
married him at an early age to his daughter Julia, to the great
mortification of the haughty and ambitious Livia, who, having borne
no children to her imperial spouse, desired to secure the first place
after the monarch and the reversion of the throne for her sons
Tiberius and Drusus.
A second rival to the youthful Marcellus arose
[21 b.c.-2 a.d.] in the person of his own brother-in-law Agrippa,
the famous general to whom Augustus chiefly
owed his victories over Sext. Pompeius and Antony, and whom he
himself had encouraged to cherish the most daring hopes by high
distinctions and proofs of favour. When the enmity between Agrippa
and Marcellus grew too plainly manifest, the emperor despatched
the former to Asia under pretext of an honourable mission. But
Agrippa, looking upon this as a kind of banishment, ruled the
province through his legate, while he himself remained at Lesbos,
his gaze riveted upon Rome. Fate intervened to save Augustus from
painful experience of the affronted pride of an ambitious man.
Marcellus died in the year 23, universally lamented by the Roman
people, whose darling he was. It was shrewdly suspected that he
had fallen a victim to the rancour and intrigues of Livia, who, by
birth a member of the Claudian family, had inherited all the pride
and jealous ambition of their old patrician blood. Augustus,
dismayed by the disturbances at Rome in the year 22, and the
evidences of a conspiracy against his life which then came to light,
made haste to be reconciled with Agrippa, and, by marrying him to
Julia, assured him of the first place after his own and the prospect of
the succession. Octavia, the emperor’s sister, moved by envy and
jealousy of Livia, gladly agreed to Agrippa’s divorce from her
daughter Marcella, that so she might thwart the ambitious schemes
of the emperor’s consort. A few years later Agrippa journeyed to the
East, accompanied by Julia, to set in order the complications and
struggles for the throne which had arisen in various districts from
the Bosporus to Syria. His presence was a blessing to the Asiatic
provinces and dependent states; he reconciled the wrangling
members of the empire by admonitions and commands, and
perpetuated the name of his wife by founding on the site of the
ancient and ruinous seaport of Berytus the colony of Julia Felix,
which was provided with a garrison of two legions and became the
centre of Roman dominion in Syria. As Agrippa was returning to Italy
after a stay of some years in the East, he succumbed to sickness in
the fifty-first year of his age. He died in Campania in 12 b.c.
Augustus rendered the highest honours to the man to whom he
owed so much, and who had devoted himself as fully to the welfare
of the state as to the cause of his imperial friend. He had the body
interred with the most solemn obsequies in the imperial vault,
himself delivering the funeral oration, and not only made over the
baths and gardens of Agrippa to the city of Rome according to the
wishes of the deceased, but distributed considerable donations of
money among the people in his name.
Livia now conceived fresh hopes for her sons. By her intrigues she
succeeded in procuring the divorce of Tiberius, her first-born, who
was at that time thirty years of age, from his wife, and his marriage
with the emperor’s widowed daughter, who had borne three sons to
Agrippa—Caius, Lucius, and Agrippa, and two daughters, Julia and
Agrippina. Augustus with difficulty suppressed his dislike of his
ambitious, overbearing, and sullen stepson.
Within a very few years the circle of friends which Augustus had
gathered about him had been sadly thinned by death. Agrippa,
Octavia, Drusus, and Mæcenas had sunk into the tomb within the
space of four years (from 12 to 8 b.c.). Thus with declining age the
emperor fixed his affections all the more exclusively upon his two
grandsons, Caius and Lucius, the children of his daughter Julia and
his friend Agrippa. He admitted them by adoption into the Julian
family, conferred the title of Cæsar upon them, and had them
brought up under his own eye; he even devoted part of his own
leisure to their instruction and education. They were his usual
companions at table, and were treated with such distinction that all
men regarded them as the future heirs of the empire. The populace
and the senate vied with each other in offering homage and
adulation to the imperial grandsons of Augustus, and they were
loaded with fresh honours and dignities every year.
But this brilliant position was fated to be the ruin of the young
princes. It not only filled their own hearts with presumption and self-
conceit; Livia and Tiberius turned eyes of envy and hatred upon the
favoured pair. When Augustus, who was not blind to their
sentiments, attempted to remove his stepson from the capital by
giving him the honourable task of conducting a campaign in
Armenia, the latter declined the proffered honour out of mortified
pride, and begged leave to spend some years in learned leisure in
the island of Rhodes. The leave was granted, and extended even
beyond his desires. For seven years he stayed in the Greek island;
busy with philosophical and mathematical studies, and observing the
constellations in the night hours under the guidance of Thrasyllus, to
draw auguries for the future from their position. His absence was at
first associated with demonstrations of honour, through the
splendour of the tribunician office which Augustus had conferred on
him before his departure; but in course of time it assumed more and
more the character of an exile, and Julia took advantage of it to
increase her father’s aversion for the husband she abhorred.
 Frivolous, vain, and wanton, the emperor’s daughter had caused
him many a heartache by the levity of her conduct and her fondness
for amusement; but she had always been able to propitiate his wrath
and regain her ascendency by her amiability, her talent for witty and
delightful conversation, her culture, and her art of delicate flattery.
He shut his eyes when she violated the outward propriety and
decorum which he endeavoured to diffuse over the private life of the
imperial family, or when she showed herself in public surrounded by
a swarm of aristocratic young men of lax morals. If he were annoyed
at some too wanton attire of hers, she would presently appear in the
decorous garb of a Roman matron and enliven her father by some
jesting observation. The circle of blooming grandchildren with which
she had surrounded his throne, and by which she seemed to have
ensured his line in the possession of the monarchy, inclined him to
judge her leniently and to make allowances for her.
But Livia’s intriguing temper found ways and means to destroy this
bond and to extinguish in the father’s heart the long-cherished belief
in his daughter’s innocence. She contrived to arouse in him the dark
suspicion that Julia was not only disgracing the honour of the
imperial house by a licentious way of life, but that she and her lovers
had actually conceived hostile designs against his person and the
security of the empire. For by this alone can we explain the harsh
measures adopted by Augustus, who had his daughter suddenly
banished without trial to the little island of Pandataria off the
Campanian coast, and informed the senate that through shameless
wantonness she had so far erred as to make the Forum and tribune
the scene of nocturnal orgies and the witness of her gallantries. Her
accomplices, real or supposed, who were for the most part
opponents of Tiberius, shared the same fate of exile, or suffered the
penalty of death, like the gifted and cultured son of the triumvir,
Julus Antonius, eminent both as a statesman and a soldier. The
sympathy and compassion of the people accompanied the emperor’s
daughter (then thirty-eight years of age) into her place of
punishment. Her guilt and transgression were her portion in the life
of a degenerate age and city steeped in pleasures and vices, her
penance was the outcome of the envy and malignity of an intriguing
stepmother.
Her life in exile, which was voluntarily shared by her mother
Scribonia, was rich in deeds of benevolence and charity. She died at
Rhegium soon after her father, full of sorrows and weary of life. The
gifted and eloquent Sempronius Gracchus, who had enjoyed her
favour and love in happier days and had consequently been
banished to the African island of Cercina, died about the same time
by the hands of assassins sent by Tiberius to despatch him; showing
himself by his fortitude in death not unworthy of the Sempronian
name which in his life he had brought to shame.
With the banishment of Julia commenced that
[1 b.c.-9 a.d.] series of misfortunes which ended by leaving
the house of Augustus desolate and inflicted
deep wounds upon his paternal heart. In that same year her eldest
son, the eighteen-year-old Caius Cæsar, undertook a campaign in
Asia at the head of a considerable army, in order to reduce to
submission the Armenians—who had revolted from the dominion of
Rome by the help of the Parthians—and to chastise the refractory
Arab tribes. Armed with authority of the proconsular imperium over
all the provinces of the east, so that absolute power in matters
military and civil rested in his hands and all local governors were
subject to his commands, the youthful commander-in-chief crossed
to Egypt by way of Samos, accompanied by M. Lollius and other
experienced and learned men whom Augustus had placed about him
as counsellors. Tiberius, who visited his stepson during his stay on
the island, was able to draw from the coolness of his reception the
conclusion that his own star was on the decline and that Caius
Cæsar was universally recognised and honoured as the heir to the
empire. From Egypt the expedition passed through Palestine to
Syria. All men bowed before the imperial youth who seemed
destined to inherit the empire of the world, and vied with one
another in proffering homage, courting favour, and bringing gifts.
Access to the youthful imperator was purchased of Lollius at a high
price.
 The enemies of Rome were struck with awe at this display of
might and majesty. The Nabatæans of Petra voluntarily returned to
their previous position of dependence, and in a personal interview
with the Roman commander-in-chief on an island in the Euphrates,
Phraates, king of Parthia, concluded a peace on terms dictated by
this mighty ruler and evacuated Armenia, which was then quickly
conquered by the legions after a faint resistance, and was again
numbered among Roman dependencies.
Caius Cæsar then made ready to return home. Feeble of body and
greatly distressed by a wound received at the siege of the town of
Artagera on the Euphrates, he had no desire for more of the
hardships and perils of war; he longed for enjoyment and tranquillity
rather than for honour and military reputation. Both were denied
him. Death overtook him at Lycia on his homeward way. Before he
died he received the mournful tidings that his younger brother
Lucius Cæsar had suddenly fallen a victim to sickness eighteen
months earlier, at Massilia, on an expedition into Spain.
With the death of the two Cæsars the hopes of Tiberius
blossomed anew. Hence it is not improbable that they died of
poison, administered at the criminal instigations of Livia. Even
contemporaries nourished this suspicion. The passionate nature of
the empress, who shrank from no crime however heinous, was well
known, as was also the revengeful and spiteful temper of her eldest
son, who had returned to Rome shortly before the death of Caius,
and now did all he could to step into the vacant place. The mother’s
intrigues and the son’s flattering arts of dissimulation did actually
succeed to some extent in overcoming the emperor’s aversion to his
stepson. He received him into favour and graciously acceded to
Livia’s proud hopes and desires by adopting him and admitting him
into the Julian family. Julia, the granddaughter of Augustus, who
resembled her mother in beauty, in wit, as well as in levity and
voluptuousness, and the younger Agrippa (styled Postumus, because
Julia had brought him into the world after the death of her
husband), a turbulent youth of haughty and intractable disposition,
rude manners, and violent passions, were no formidable rivals to the
artful Livia and her malevolent son.
When Agrippa’s outbreaks of fury were carried so far that neither
the emperor nor the empress were spared by them, the latter
contrived that the thoughtless and ungovernable youth, though
adopted by Augustus at the same time as Tiberius, should be kept
under military supervision in the little island of Planasia; where
Tiberius had put him out of the way in the first year of his reign by
assassins despatched for the purpose, alleging instruction left by the
deceased emperor as his excuse. The younger Julia was banished on
the pretext of an illicit amour with Decius Silanus, to a desolate
island in the neighbourhood of Apulia, and compelled to pass the
rest of her days—twenty long years—in exile.
Fortune, which had stood by Augustus
[9-14 a.d.] faithfully throughout his public career and had
led him by many thorny paths to the summit of
earthly glory, deserted him in his private life and in his domestic
circle. Hatred and envy, fanned by female passions, ranged his court
in two hostile factions, which employed against each other all the
weapons of intrigue and all the arts of treachery and dissimulation,
and scared peace and harmony away from the apartments of the
imperial palace.
Livia’s ambitious and passionate temper was so notorious that she
was actually suspected of having cut her husband’s days short by
poison, lest he should restore his grandson Agrippa, to whom he had
been reconciled in his island exile a little while before with tears and
passionate embraces, to his rights and honours. She was alone with
the emperor when death overtook him on a journey, at Nola in
Lower Italy, in the seventy-sixth year of his age; and by carefully
guarding the house and spreading false reports she concealed the
fact of his decease until her son, who for several years had been
associated with his adoptive father as coadjutor in the empire, could
be summoned from Illyricum. Then the world was startled by the
double announcement that Augustus was dead and that Tiberius had
assumed the reins of power.
The gorgeous obsequies of his predecessor were the new
emperor’s first business. Escorted by the whole body of knights and
senators, and accompanied by women, bodyguards, and an
innumerable multitude, the corpse was borne to the Field of Mars
and there committed to the flames. When the ashes had been
collected and interred in the imperial vault the deceased was exalted
to a place among the gods by a decree of the senate, and a temple
and ritual were assigned to him. Livia, known as Julia Livia since her
adoption into the Julian family, was to preside as high priestess over
the new college of priests devoted to the deified monarch. She died
in the year 29 a.d., at the advanced age of 86.b
It is extremely difficult to estimate the character of this celebrated
woman. Expression has been given above to various intimations
which if justified reveal her in the worst possible light. But it must
not be forgotten that evil-minded gossips were very busy in the early
days of the empire, and that intrigues and sinister motives of a
doubtful character darken the pages of Tacitus, our chief authority.
Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that Tacitus excels in the
invention or the partisan use of bad motives, and his great dramatic
and satirical powers give peculiar force to this unfair weapon. Tacitus
can be relied on for facts which were publicly known or recorded at
the time, but he is far from impartial. It may be, then, that an
impartial estimate might soften somewhat the harsh judgment
which, thanks to Tacitus, most writers have not hesitated to pass
upon Livia. With this qualified estimate let us turn from Livia to
consider the character of her famous husband.a

THE PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AUGUSTUS

We are indebted to C. Suetonius Tranquillus, who lived at Rome

about the close of the first century a.d., for most that we know of
the personal characteristics of Augustus, and of his immediate
successors. Thanks to him, we are enabled to gain a personal
acquaintance, as it were, with the Cæsars; which is very unusual
with the great characters of antiquity in general. The biographies of
Plutarch and of Cornelius Nepos are about the only other extensive
repositories of information concerning the character of celebrities as
men rather than as mere historical personalities. We turn now to
Suetonius’ estimate of Augustus:
Augustus was slow in forming friendships, but when once they
were contracted, he maintained them with great constancy; not only
rewarding very handsomely the virtues and good services of his
friends, but bearing likewise with their faults and vices, provided that
they were of a venial kind. For amongst all his friends, we scarcely
find any who fell into disgrace with him, except Salvidienus Rufus,
whom he raised to the consulship, and Cornelius Gallus whom he
made governor of Egypt, both of them men of the lowest extraction.
One of these, being engaged in a design to excite a rebellion, he
delivered up to the senate, that he might be condemned; and the
other, on account of his ungrateful and malicious temper, he
dismissed from his family and the provinces under his government.
But when Gallus, by the threats of his accusers, and the votes of the
senate against him, was driven to the desperate extremity of laying
violent hands upon himself, he commended indeed the attachment
of the senate, that had expressed so much indignation on his
account; but he shed tears, and lamented his unhappy condition,
“that I alone,” said he, “cannot be permitted to be angry with my
friends to such a degree as I think proper.” The rest of his friends
continued during their whole lives to make a distinguished figure in
their several orders, both in power and estate, notwithstanding some
occasional incidents of a disagreeable nature. For to say nothing of
others, he would sometimes complain of impatience in Agrippa, and
of loquacity in Mæcenas: the former, from a suspicion of a coolness
in Augustus towards him, and because Marcellus received greater
marks of favour, having withdrawn himself from all concern in the
government, and retired to Mytilene; and the latter having
confidentially imparted to his wife Terentia the discovery of Murena’s
conspiracy. He likewise expected from his friends, both living and
dying, a mutual proof of their benevolence. For though he was far
from coveting their estates (as he never would accept of any legacy
left him by a stranger), yet he examined their last sentiments of him,
expressed in their wills, with an anxious attention; not being able to
conceal his chagrin, if they made but a slight, or no very honourable
mention of him, nor his joy on the other hand, if they expressed a
grateful sense of his favours and a hearty affection for him. And
what was left him by such as had children, he used to restore to the
latter, either immediately, or if they were under age, upon the day of
their assuming the manly habit, or of their marriage, with interest.
As a patron and master, his behaviour in general was mild and
conciliating; but when occasion required it, he could be severe. He
employed many of his freedmen in considerable posts about him, as
Licinius, Enceladus, and others. And when his slave Cosmus had
reflected bitterly upon him, he resented the injury no further than by
putting him in fetters. When his steward Diomedes, as they were
walking together, left him exposed to a wild boar, which came
suddenly upon them, he chose rather to charge him with cowardice
than any ill design, and turned an incident of no small hazard to his
person into a jest, because it had proceeded from no treachery.
Proculus, who was one of his greatest favourites amongst all his
freedmen, he put to death, for maintaining a criminal commerce
with other men’s wives. He broke the legs of his secretary Thallus,
for taking a bribe of five hundred denarii to discover the contents of
a letter of his. And his son Caius’ tutor, and other attendants, upon
the occasion of his sickness and death behaving with great
insolence, and committing acts of rapaciousness, he tied great
weights about their necks and threw them into a river.
In his youth he lay under the infamy of various aspersions. Sextus
Pompeius reproached him as an effeminate fellow; and M. Antony,
that he had earned his adoption from his uncle by prostitution. L.
Antony likewise upbraids him with the same; and that he had, for a
gratification of three hundred thousand sesterces, submitted to A.
Hirtius in the same way, in Spain; adding, that he used to singe his
legs with the flame of nutshells, to make the hair become softer.
That he was guilty of various acts of adultery is not denied even
by his friends; but they allege in excuse for it that he engaged in
those intrigues not from lewdness but policy, to discover more easily
the designs of his enemies by their wives.
With respect to the charge of prostitution, he very easily refuted it
by the chastity of his life, at the very time when the imputation was
made, as well as ever after. His conduct likewise gave the lie to that
of a luxurious extravagance in his furniture, when, upon the taking
of Alexandria, he reserved for himself nothing of all the furniture of
the palace but a cup of porcelain; and soon after melted down all
the golden vessels, even such as were intended for common use.
But he never could discountenance the imputation of lewdness with
women; being, as they say, in the latter part of his life, much
addicted to the deflowering of virgins, who were procured for him
from all parts, even by his own wife. To the remarks concerning his
gaming he paid not the smallest regard; but played frankly and
openly for his diversion, even when he was advanced in years; and
not only in the month of December, but at other times, and upon all
days, whether festivals or not. This evidently appears from a letter
under his own hand, in which he says, “I supped, my dear Tiberius,
with the same company. We had besides Vinicius, and Silvius the
father. We gamed like old fellows at supper, both yesterday and to-
day. And as any one threw upon the tali[5] aces or sixes, he put
down for every talus a denarius; all which was gained by him who
threw a Venus.”
In another letter he says: “We had, my dear Tiberius, a pleasant
time of it during the festival of Minerva: for we played every day,
and kept the gaming board warm. Your brother uttered many
exclamations at a desperate run of ill fortune; but recovering by
degrees, and unexpectedly, he in the end lost not much. I lost
twenty thousand sesterces for my part; but then I was profusely
generous in my play, as I commonly am; for had I insisted upon the
stakes which I declined, or kept what I gave away, I should have
won above fifty thousand. But this I like better; for my generosity
will raise me to celestial glory.” In a letter to his daughter, he writes
thus: “I have sent you 250 denarii, which I gave to every one of my
guests; in case they were inclined at supper to divert themselves
with the tali, or at the game of even or odd.”
In other parts of his life, it is certain that he conducted himself
with great discretion, and was free from all suspicion of any vice. He
lived at first near the Roman Forum, above the Ringmaker’s Stairs, in
a house which had once been occupied by Calvus the orator. He
afterwards moved to the Palatine, where he resided in a small house
belonging to Hortensius, no way remarkable either in respect of
accommodation or ornament; the piazzas being but small, the pillars
of Alban stone, and the rooms without anything of marble or fine
paving. He continued to use the same bed chamber, both winter and
summer, during forty years; for though he was sensible that the city
did not agree well with his health, he nevertheless resided constantly
in it through the winter.
If at any time he wished to be perfectly retired, and secure from
interruption, he shut himself up in an apartment in the top of his
house, which he called Syracuse, or Τεχνοφυον, or he went to some
seat belonging to his freedmen near the city. But when he was
indisposed, he commonly took up his residence in Mæcenas’ house.
Of all the places of retirement from the city, he chiefly frequented
those upon the seacoast, and the islands of Campania, or the towns
near the city, as Lanuvium, Præneste, and Tibur, where he often
used to sit for the administration of justice, in the porticos of
Hercules’ temple. He had a particular aversion to large and
sumptuous palaces; and some that had been raised at a vast
expense by his granddaughter Julia he levelled with the ground.
Those of his own, which were far from being spacious, he adorned
not so much with statues and pictures as with walks and groves, and
things which were curious either for their antiquity or rarity; such as
at Capreæ, the huge limbs of sea monsters and wild beasts, which
some affect to call the bones of giants and the arms of old heroes.
 His frugality in the furniture of his house appears even at this day,
from some beds and tables still extant; most of which are scarcely fit
for any genteel private family. It is reported that he never lay upon a
bed, but such as was low and meanly furnished. He seldom wore
any garment but what was made by the hands of his wife, sister,
daughter, and granddaughters. His togas were neither scanty nor
full; nor the clavus of his tunic either remarkably broad or narrow.
His shoes were a little higher than common, to make him appear
taller than he was. He had always clothes and shoes, proper to go
abroad in, ready by him in his bed chamber, for any sudden
occasion.
At his table, which was always plentiful and elegant, he constantly
entertained company; but was very scrupulous in the choice of
them. Valerius Messalla informs us that he never admitted any
freedman to his table, except Menas, after he had betrayed to him
Pompey’s fleet, but not until he had promoted him to the state of
the freeborn. He writes himself that he invited to his table a person
in whose country house he lodged, that had formerly been a spy to
him. He often would come late to table, and withdraw soon, so that
the company began supper before his coming in and continued at
table after his departure. His entertainments consisted of three
dishes, or at most only six. But if the expense was moderate, the
complaisance with which he treated his company was extraordinary.
For such as were silent, or talked low, he excited to bear a part in
the common conversation; and ordered in music and stage-players
and dancers from the circus, and very often itinerant declaimers, to
enliven the company.
Festivals and solemn days of joy he usually celebrated in a very
expensive manner, but sometimes only in a jocular manner. In the
Saturnalia, or at any other time when the fancy took him, he would
distribute to his company clothes, gold, and silver; sometimes coins
of all sorts, even of the ancient kings of Rome and of other nations;
sometimes nothing but hair-cloth, sponges, peels, and pincers, and
other things of that kind, with obscure and ambiguous inscriptions
upon them. He used likewise to sell tickets of things of very unequal
value, and pictures with the back sides turned towards the company
at table; and so, by the unknown quality of the lot, disappoint or
gratify the expectation of the purchasers. This sort of traffic went
round the whole company, everyone being obliged to buy
something, and to run the chance of loss or gain with the rest.
He was a man of a little stomach (for I must not omit even this
article), and commonly used a plain diet. He was particularly fond of
coarse bread, small fishes, cheese made of cow’s milk, and green
figs of that kind that comes twice a year. He would eat before
supper, at any time, and in any place, when he had an appetite.

Roman General wearing the Paludamentum

He was naturally extremely sparing in the use of wine. Cornelius

Nepos says that he used to drink only three times at supper in the
camp at Mutina; and when he indulged himself the most, he never
exceeded a pint, or if he did, he threw it up again. Of all wines, he
gave the preference to the Rhætic, but scarcely ever drank any in
the daytime. Instead of drinking, he used to take a piece of bread
dipped in cold water, or a slice of cucumber, or some leaves of
lettuce, or a green sharp juicy apple.
After a little food at noon, he used to take a nap with his clothes
and shoes on, his feet covered, and his hand held before his eyes.
After supper he commonly withdrew to a couch in his study, where
he continued late, until he had put down in his diary all or most of
the remaining transactions of the day, which he had not before
registered. He would then go to bed, but never slept above seven
hours at most, and that not without interruption; for he would wake
three or four times in that space. If he could not again fall asleep, as
sometimes happened, he would call for some person to read or tell
stories to him, until sleep supervened, which was usually protracted
till after daybreak. He never would lie awake in the dark without
somebody to sit by him. Very early rising was apt to disagree with
him. On which account, if religious or social duty obliged him to get
up early, that he might guard as much as possible against the
inconvenience resulting from it, he used to lodge in some apartment
belonging to any of his domestics that was nearest the place at
which he was to give his attendance. If at any time a fit of
drowsiness seized him in passing along the streets, he would order
the chair to be set down, until he had taken a little sleep.
In person he was handsome and graceful, through all the stages
of his life. But he was careless of dress; and so little attentive to the
adjustment of his hair, that he usually had it done in great haste, by
several barbers at a time. He would sometimes clip, and sometimes
shave his beard; and during the operation would be either reading or
writing. His countenance, either when he spoke or held his tongue,
was so calm and serene, that a Gaul of the first rank declared
amongst his friends that he was so much mollified by it, as to be
restrained from throwing him down a precipice, in his passage over
the Alps, upon being admitted to approach him, under the pretext of
speaking with him. His eyes were clear and bright; and he was
willing it should be thought that there was something of a divine
vigour in them. He was likewise not a little pleased to see people,
upon his looking steadfastly at them, lower their countenances, as if
the sun shone in their eyes. But in his old age, he saw very
imperfectly with his left eye. His teeth were thin set, small and
rough, his hair a little curled, and inclining to a yellow colour. His
eyebrows met; his ears were small, and he had an aquiline nose. His
complexion was betwixt brown and fair; his stature but low; though
Julius Marathus his freedman says he was five feet and nine inches
in height. This however was so much concealed by the just
proportion of his limbs, that it was only perceivable upon comparison
with some taller person standing by him.
From early youth he devoted himself with great diligence and
application to the study of eloquence, and the other liberal arts. In
the war of Mutina, notwithstanding the weighty affairs in which he
was engaged, he is said to have read, written, and declaimed every
day. He never addressed the senate, people, or soldiery but in a
premeditated speech, though he was not destitute of the talent of
speaking extempore. And lest his memory should fail him, as well as
to prevent the loss of time in getting his speeches by heart, he
resolved to read them all. In his intercourse with individuals, and
even with his wife Livia, upon a subject of importance, he had all he
would say down in writing, lest, if he spoke extempore, he should
say more or less than was proper. He delivered himself in a sweet
and peculiar tone, in which he was diligently instructed by a master.
But when he had a cold, he sometimes made use of a crier for the
delivery of his speeches to the people.c
In his literary qualifications, without at all rivalling the attainments
of Cæsar, he was on a level with most Romans of distinction of his
time; and it is said that both in speaking and writing his style was
eminent for its perfect plainness and propriety. His speeches on any
public occasion were composed beforehand, and recited from
memory; nay, so careful was he not to commit himself by any
inconsiderate expression, that even when discussing any important
subject with his own wife, he wrote down what he had to say, and
read it before her. Like his uncle, he was strongly tinged with
superstition; he was very much afraid of thunder and lightning, and
always carried about with him a sealskin, as a charm against its
power; notwithstanding which, in any severe storm, he was
accustomed to hide himself in a chamber in the centre of his house,
to be as much out of the way of it as possible; add to which, he was
a great observer of dreams, and of lucky and unlucky days.d
He neither slighted his own dreams, nor those of other people
relating to himself. At the battle of Philippi, though he had resolved
not to stir out of his tent, on account of being indisposed, yet, upon
the occasion of a dream which a friend of his had, he altered his
resolution; and it was fortunate for him that he did so; for the camp
was taken, and his couch, upon a supposition of his being in it, was
pierced in several parts, and cut to pieces. He had many frivolous
silly dreams during the spring; but in the other parts of the year, his
dreams were less frequent and more significative. Upon his
frequently visiting a temple in the Capitol, which he had dedicated to
Thundering Jove, he dreamed that Jupiter Capitolinus complained
that his worshippers were taken from him, and that upon this he
replied he had only given him the Thunderer for his porter. He
therefore immediately hung the ceiling of the temple round with little
bells; because such commonly hung at the gates of great houses.
Upon occasion of a dream too, he always, on a certain day of the
year, begged an alms of the people, reaching out his hand to receive
the dole with which they presented him.
Some signs and omens he regarded as infallible. If in the morning
his shoe was put on wrong, or the left instead of the right, that was
with him a dismal presage. If, upon his setting out on a long journey
by sea or land, there happened to fall a mizzling rain he held it to be
a good sign of a speedy and happy return. He was much affected
likewise with anything out of the common course of nature. A palm
tree, which chanced to grow up betwixt some stones in the
pavement before his house, he transplanted into a court where the
household gods were placed, and took all possible care to make it
thrive.
His death and his subsequent deification were said to have been
intimated by divers manifest prodigies. As he was finishing the
census amidst a great crowd of people in the Field of Mars, an eagle
flew about him several times, and then directed its course to a
neighbouring temple, where it sat down upon the name of Agrippa,
and at the first letter. Upon observing this, he ordered Tiberius to
put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such occasions, for the
succeeding lustrum. For he declared he would not meddle with what
it was probable he should never accomplish, though the tables were
ready drawn for it. About that same time, the first letter of his name,
in an inscription upon a statue of him, was struck out by lightning;
which was interpreted as a presage that he would live only a
hundred days longer: which number the letter C stands for, and that
he would be placed amongst the gods; as Æsar, which is the
remaining part of the word Cæsar, signifies, in the Tuscan language,
a god. Being therefore about despatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and
designing to go with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained
by several persons who applied to him upon account of causes they
had depending, he cried out, which was afterwards regarded as an
omen of his death, “Not all the business that can occur shall detain
me at Rome one moment longer”; and setting out upon his journey,
he went as far as Astura; whence, contrary to his custom, he put to
sea in the night time, upon the occasion of a favourable wind.
His sickness was occasioned by diarrhoea; notwithstanding which,
he went round the coast of Campania and the adjacent islands, and
spent four days in that of Capreæ; where he gave himself up
entirely to his ease; behaving, at the same time, to those about him
with the utmost good nature and complaisance. As he happened to
sail by the Bay of Puteoli, the passengers and mariners aboard a
ship of Alexandria just then arrived, clad all in white, with crowns
upon their heads, loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations,
crying out, “By you we live, by you we sail, by you enjoy our liberty
and our fortunes.” At which being greatly pleased, he distributed to