Resonance, Inductive Effect

RESONANCE OR MESOMERISM IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Sometimes, it is not possible to represent the molecule or ion with only one structure. More than one structure have to be proposed. But none of them explains all the observed properties of the molecule. The solution is to write a weighted average of all the valid structures, which explains all the properties. This condition is usually referred to as resonance or mesomerism or delocalization. The representation of structure of a molecule as a weighted average of two or more hypothetical structures, which only differ by the arrangement of electrons but with same positions for atoms is referred to as resonance. Salient features of resonance: * The hypothetical structures with different arrangement of electrons but with identical positions for atoms are called resonance structures or canonical forms or contributing structures. * The resonance structures are only imaginary and the actual structure of the molecule is considered as the hybrid of all the valid resonance structures. Resonance hybrid: The weighted average of contributing structures is known as resonance hybrid. It is considered as the actual structure. * The energy of resonance hybrid is always less than the energy of any of the contributing resonance structure. * The resonance structures are formed (only on paper!?) due to delocalization of electrons and not by changing the positions of atoms. * The delocalization of electrons is shown using curved arrows. One should keep in mind that the individual resonance structures do not exist and the molecule do not resonate (switch back and forth) between these structures. The actual molecule is simply the hybrid of all these imaginary resonance structures. Hence the delocalization of electrons is also imaginary process which helps in understanding the resonance. Illustration: From the following structure (I) - representing urea,
it is expected that: 1) It should be a diacidic base, 2) The bond length of C-N bond is equal to the normal C-N bond length and 3) No dipole moment since it is symmetrical.
However it is observed that: 1) Urea is a monoacidic base, 2) It has shorter than expected bond length for C-N bond and 3) It shows dipole moment. Hence, to account for above observations, resonance hybrid of following resonance structures. the actual structure of urea is represented as a
Note: The contributing structures are always shown to be linked by using double headed arrows ( ).
RULES THAT HELP IN WRITING VALID RESONANCE STRUCTURES

The valid resonance structures must satisfy the following rules: * They must be valid Lewis structures obeying octet rule. E.g. Carbon or Nitrogen with five bonds is not allowed. In the structure (II), the nitrogen atom violated the octet. It has 10 electrons around it.
* They should possess same number of electrons and equal net charge. * The number of unpaired electrons in them must be same. E.g. Following structure for butadiene is not valid.
* The positions of atoms should be same in all the resonance structures. E.g. The following are not the resonance structures, since the position of one hydrogen atom is not same. Indeed, they are different molecules, which are in dynamic equilibrium with each other. These are called tautomers. Also note that these molecules are linked by two half headed arrows and not by a single double headed arrow.
* The bond order of two connecting atoms may vary between two different resonance structures. * The resonance structures may or may not be equivalent. * The atoms that are part of the delocalized system must be arranged in one plane or nearly so. The reason is to get maximum overlap between the orbitals.
STABILITY OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES

* The actual structure i.e., resonance hybrid of a molecule has lower energy than any of the contributing form and hence the resonance is a stabilizing phenomenon. * Greater the number of contributing structures, greater is the stability of the resonance hybrid. * All the structures do not contribute equally to the hybrid. * Greater the stability of a resonance structure, larger is its contribution to the resonance hybrid. Rules to decide the major contributor to the hybrid in the decreasing order of preference are given below: * The contributing structures that have atoms with full octets are more stable than the ones with open octets. * The contributing structure with more covalent bonds is more stable. E.g. Among the following, the structure II is more stable since all the atoms have octet configuration and there are more covalent bonds.
* Resonance structures with fewer charges are more stable than those with more charges. E.g. The second structure with two negative charges is not only less stable.
* The structure with less charge separation is more stable. E.g. Among the following resonance forms of phenol, the structure I is more stable since it has no charge. Whereas the structures II and IV have less charge separation and are more stable than the structure III.
* The structure with charge dispersal or delocalization over more number of atoms is more stable. * The structures in which the atoms bearing the conventional charges are more stable i.e., the more electronegative atom should bear negative charge while the relatively less electronegative atom should bear positive charge. E.g.
Resonance stabilization energy: The difference between the energy of resonance hybrid and that of most stable resonance structure of a molecule is known as the resonance stabilization energy of that molecule.
EXAMPLES OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES

1) The following resonance structures can be written for benzene which are hypothetically possible due to delocalization of electrons. The Kekule structures have more weightage than Dewar structures.
The actual structure of benzene is thus shown to be the hybrid of these contributing structures. The bond order of every C-C bond is 1.5 and hence the every C-C bond length is reported to be same and equals to 1.39 Ao, which is in between the bond length values of C-C single bond (1.54 Ao) and C=C double bond (1.20 Ao). Due to resonance, benzene gets extra stability and does not undergo electrophilic addition reactions. However it shows electrophilic substitution reactions. This phenomenon is known as aromaticity.
ILLUSTRATION OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

The C-Cl bond in the butyl chloride, CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-Cl is polarized due to electronegativity difference. The electrons are withdrawn by the chlorine atom. Thus the first carbon atom gets partial
positive charge. In turn, this carbon atom drags electron density partially from the next carbon, which also gets partial positive charge. Thus the inductive effect is transmitted through the carbon chain.
But the inductive effect weakens away along the chain and is not significant beyond 3rd carbon atom.
TYPES OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

The inductive effect is divided into two types depending on their strength of electron withdrawing or electron releasing nature with respect to hydrogen. 1) Negative inductive effect (-I): The electron withdrawing nature of groups or atoms is called as negative inductive effect. It is indicated by -I. Following are the examples of groups in the decreasing order of their -I effect: NH3+ > NO2 > CN > SO3H > CHO > CO > COOH > COCl > CONH2 > F > Cl > Br > I > OH > OR > NH2 > C6H5 > H 2) Positive inductive effect (+I): It refers to the electron releasing nature of the groups or atoms and is denoted by +I. Following are the examples of groups in the decreasing order of their +I effect. C(CH3)3 > CH(CH3)2 > CH2CH3 > CH3 > H Why alkyl groups are showing positive inductive effect? Though the C-H bond is practically considered as non-polar, there is partial positive charge on hydrogen atom and partial negative charge on carbon atom. Therefore each hydrogen atom acts as electron donating group. This in turn makes an alkyl group, an electron donating group.
APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

Stability of carbonium ions: The stability of carbonium ions increases with increase in number of alkyl groups due to their +I effect. The alkyl groups release electrons to carbon, bearing positive charge and thus stabilizes the ion. The order of stability of carbonium ions is :
Stability of free radicals: In the same way the stability of free radicals increases with increase in the number of alkyl groups. Thus the stability of different free radicals is:
Stability of carbanions: However the stability of carbanions decreases with increase in the number of alkyl groups since the electron donating alkyl groups destabilize the carbanions by increasing the electron density. Thus the order of stability of carbanions is:
Acidic strength of carboxylic acids and phenols: The electron withdrawing groups (-I) decrease the negative charge on the carboxylate ion and thus by stabilizing it. Hence the acidic strength increases when -I groups are present. However the +I groups decrease the acidic strength. E.g. i) The acidic strength increases with increase in the number of electron withdrawing Fluorine atoms as shown below. CH3COOH < CH2FCOOH < CHF2COOH < CF3COOH ii) Formic acid is stronger acid than acetic acid since the CH3 group destabilizes the carboxylate ion. On the same lines, the acidic strength of phenols increases when -I groups are present on the ring.
E.g. The p-nitrophenol is stronger acid than phenol since the -NO2 group is a -I group and withdraws electron density. Whereas the para-cresol is weaker acid than phenol since the -CH3 group shows positive (+I) inductive effect. Therefore the decreasing order of acidic strength is:
Basic strength of amines: The electron donating groups like alkyl groups increase the basic strength of amines whereas the electron withdrawing groups like aryl groups decrease the basic nature. Therefore alkyl amines are stronger Lewi bases than ammonia, whereas aryl amines are weaker than ammonia. Thus the order of basic strength of alkyl and aryl amines with respect to ammonia is :CH 3NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2 Reactivity of carbonyl compounds: The +I groups increase the electron density at carbonyl carbon. Hence their reactivity towards nucleophiles decreases. Thus formaldehyde is more reactive than acetaldehyde and acetone towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Thus the order of reactivity follows:
Important note: In general, the inductive effect is less influencing than other effects like resonance effect and hyperconjugation. E.g. The electron withdrawing nature of nitro group, -NO2 is mostly due to resonance effect rather than the inductive effect. But there are exceptions. For example, in cases of halogens, the negative inductive effect is more dominating than positive resonance effect.

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RESONANCE OR MESOMERISM IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

RULES THAT HELP IN WRITING VALID RESONANCE STRUCTURES

STABILITY OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES

EXAMPLES OF RESONANCE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATION OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

TYPES OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTIVE EFFECT

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