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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

1 Mathematical Postulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Special Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Beta Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Mittag-Leffler Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Hypergeometric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function . . . . 4
1.1.6 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Definitions and Properties of Fractional-Order Operators . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Grunwald-Letnikov (GL) Fractional-Order Derivative . . 6
1.2.2 Riemann-Liouville (RL) Fractional-Order Integral. . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Riemann-Liouville Fractional-Order Derivative. . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Caputo Fractional-Order Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Properties of GL, RL, and Caputo Fractional-Order
Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Laplace Transforms of Fractional-Order Operators . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Fractional-Order Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Fractional-Order PIλ, PDµ, and PIλDµ Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Triangular Orthogonal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.1 Review of Block Pulse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.2 Complementary Pair of Triangular Orthogonal
Function Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.3 Expansion of Two Variable Function via TFs . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.4 The TF Estimate of the First-Order
Integral of Function f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.5 The TF Estimate of Riemann-Liouville
Fractional-Order Integral of f ðtÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6.6 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.7 MATLAB® Code for Generalized Triangular
Function Operational Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7 Triangular Strip Operational Matrices for Classical
and Fractional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

vii
viii Contents

1.7.1 Operational Matrix for Classical Derivative . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.7.2 Operational Matrix for Fractional-Order Derivative . . . 33
1.7.3 MATLAB Code for Triangular Strip
Operational Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
2 Numerical Method for Simulation of Physical Processes
Represented by Weakly Singular Fredholm, Volterra,
and Volterra-Fredholm Integral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Convergence Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.1 Investigation of Validity and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Example 2.1: The weakly singular (WS)
Fredholm-Hammerstein integral
equation (IE) of 2nd kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Example 2.2: WS linear Fredholm IE of 2nd kind . . . . . 50
Example 2.3: WS Fredholm-Hammerstein
IE of 1st kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Example 2.4: WS Volterra-Fredholm-Hammerstein
IE of 2nd kind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Example 2.5: WS Volterra-Hammerstein
IE of 2nd kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.2 Numerical Stability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Example 2.6: WS linear Volterra-Fredholm IE
of 2nd kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4.3 Application of Proposed Method to Physical
Process Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Application 2.1: Heat radiation in a
semi-infinite solid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Application 2.2: Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Application 2.3: Lighthill singular integral
equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 MATLAB® Codes for Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.6 Summary of Deliverables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
3 Numerical Method for Simulation of Physical Processes
Modeled by Abel’s Integral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3 Convergence Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Contents ix

3.4 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.4.1 Investigation of Validity and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.2 Numerical Stability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.3 Application to Physical Process Models
Involving Abel’s Integral Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Application 3.1: Cyclic voltammetry for the reversible
deposition of metals on a solid planar
macroelectrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Application 3.2: Cyclic voltammetry for reversible
charge transfer at a planar
macroelectrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Application 3.3: Potential step chronoamperometry
for an irreversible charge transfer
at a spherical electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Application 3.4: Cyclic voltammetry for
an irreversible charge transfer
at a spherical electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Application 3.5: Cyclic voltammetry for the catalytic
mechanism at a planar electrode . . . . . 93
3.5 MATLAB® Codes for Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4 Numerical Method for Simulation of Physical Processes
Described by Fractional-Order Integro-Differential Equations . . . 109
4.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.2 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3 Convergence Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Case study 4.1: Fractional-order Fredholm-Hammerstein
integro-differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Case study 4.2: Fractional order Volterra-Fredholm
integro-differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Case study 4.3: Fractional-order population growth model. . . 123
Case study 4.4: Fractional-order integro-differential
equations in anomalous diffusion process. . . . 126
4.5 MATLAB® Codes for Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5 Numerical Method for Simulation of Physical Processes
Represented by Stiff and Nonstiff Fractional-Order
Differential Equations, and Differential-Algebraic Equations. . . . 135
5.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
x Contents

5.2 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.3 Convergence Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.4 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.4.1 Investigation of Validity and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Example 5.1: Simple linear multiorder Fractional
differential equation (FDE). . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Example 5.2: Complex linear high-order FDE . . . . . . . 142
Example 5.3: Complex linear low-order FDE . . . . . . . . 143
Example 5.4: Nonlinear multiorder FDE . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Example 5.5: Linear multiorder FDE with
variable coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Example 5.6: Linear fractional-order
differential-algebraic equation
(FDAEs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Example 5.7: Nonlinear FDAEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Example 5.8: System of nonlinear FDEs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.4.2 Application to Physical Processes Described
by FDEs and FDAEs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Application 5.1: Bagley-Torvik equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Application 5.2: Two-point Bagley-Torvik equation . . 148
Application 5.3: Plant-herbivore model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Application 5.4: Financial mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Application 5.5: Epidemiological model for computer
viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Application 5.6: Chemical Akzo Nobel problem . . . . . 156
Application 5.7: Robertson’s system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Application 5.8: High Irradiance Responses (HIRES)
of photo morphogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . 160
®
5.5 MATLAB Codes for Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6 Numerical Method for Simulation of Fractional Diffusion-Wave
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.1 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2 Convergence Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7 Identification of Fractional Order Linear and Nonlinear
Systems from Experimental or Simulated Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.1 Fractional Order System (FOS) Identification using TFs . . . . . 201
7.1.1 Linear FOS Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.1.2 Nonlinear FOS Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Contents xi

7.2 Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Case study 7.1: Identification of Linear Single Input Single
Output (SISO) FOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Case study 7.2: Identification of Linear SISO Integer Order
System (IOS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Case study 7.3: Identification of Linear Multi-Input
Single Output IOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
Case study 7.4: Identification of Nonlinear SISO FOS . . . . . . . .214
Case study 7.5: Verification of applicability of proposed
identification method for sinusoidal signal,
square wave signal, Sawtooth wave signal,
step signal, pseudo random binary signal . . . .216
7.3 MATLAB Codes for Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4 Summary of Chapter Deliverables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8 Design of Fractional Order Controllers using Triangular Strip
Operational Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.1 Triangular Strip Operational Matrices–Based Fractional
Order Controller Design Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2 Constrained Nonlinear Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.2.1 Luus-Jaakola (LJ) Multipass Optimization Method . . . 242
8.2.2 Particle Swarm Optimization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.3 Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.3.1 Design of Robust Fractional PIλDµ Controller
for a Heating Furnace System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3.2 Design of Fractional Order PIλDµDµ2 Controller
for Automatic Voltage Regulator System . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.3.3 Design of Fractional Order PIλ Controller,
Fractional PDµ Controller, Fractional Order
PIλDµ Controller with Fractional Order Filter,
and Series Form of Fractional Order
PIλDµ Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.4 MATLAB Codes for Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.5 Summary of Chapter Deliverables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9 Rational Integer Order System Approximation for Irrational
Fractional Order Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.1 The Proposed Integer-Order Approximation Method . . . . . . . 286
9.2 Simulation Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.3 MATLAB Codes for Simulation Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
xii Contents

10 Numerical Method for Solving Fractional-Order Optimal Control

Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10.1 The Proposed Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.2 Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Case study 10.1: Optimal control of linear time invariant
integer order system (IOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
Case study 10.2: Optimal control of linear time-varying
fractional-order system (FOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
Case study 10.3: Optimal control of nonlinear FOS . . . . . . . . . .318
Case study 10.4: Optimal control of two-dimensional IOS . . . .320
10.3 MATLAB® Codes for Simulation Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Preface

This book discusses significant applications of triangular functions in

simulation, identification, and control of fractional-order processes. Pro-
cesses exhibiting fractional-order dynamics are called fractional-order
processes. Fractional Calculus (FC) is an active branch of mathematical
analysis that deals with the theory of differentiation and integration of
arbitrary order. It is also known as Generalized Integral and Differential
Calculus, and Calculus of Arbitrary Order. The concept of the fractional-
order derivative was first discussed by Leibniz and L’Hospital almost three
hundred years ago (i.e., at the end of the seventeenth century), a time
when the foundations of the integer order calculus were developed by
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Leibniz introduced the
symbol dn f ðxÞ=dxn , n2N, to denote the nth derivative of a function f ðxÞ. In
Leibnizs’ letter to Guillaume de l’Hospital, dated 30 September 1695 (which
is considered as the date of birth of fractional calculus), he raised the
question about the possibility of generalizing the operation of classical
differentiation to noninteger orders. This question aroused l’Hospital’s
inquisitiveness and he replied to Leibniz with another question: “What
does dn f ðxÞ=dxn if n ¼ 1=2 mean?” Leibniz replied, “It will lead to a paradox
from which one day useful consequence will be drawn.” L’Hosptial’s
curiosity about the meaning of the semiderivative (i.e., dn f ðxÞ=dxn , n ¼ 1=2,
a fraction or rational number) gave rise to the name of this subject (FC), and
its name has remained the same, even though n can be any real number
(rational or irrational). Although the same name is used throughout this
book due to historical reasons, it should be understood to be noninteger
(arbitrary real number) calculus, to be exact. As a matter of fact, even
complex numbers can be allowed. Since the inception of FC, many great
mathematicians (pure and applied), such as N. H. Abel, M. Caputo, L. Euler,
A. K. Grunwald, J. Fourier, J. Hadamard, G. H. Hardy, O. Heaviside, H. J.
Holmgren, P. S. Laplace, G. W. Leibniz, A. V. Letnikov, J. Liouville, B.
Riemann, M. Riesz, and H. Weyl have contributed to this field. FC remained
unknown to many applied mathematicians, scientists, and engineers
because several definitions formulated for fractional-order derivative
worked only in some situations. The mathematical theory of the subject
seemed very different from that of integer order calculus. FC was considered
to be an abstract area involving only mathematical manipulation of little or
no use, and was thought to have no applications.
Almost three decades ago, the mathematics and applied mathematics
fraternity realized the potential of FC and started developing essential
mathematical theory to establish it. Since then, FC has emerged as an
important and efficient tool for the study of dynamical systems where

xiii
xiv Preface

classical calculus reveals strong limitations. The books and monographs of

Oldham and Spanier (1974), Oustaloup (1991, 1994, 1995), Miller and Ross
(1993), Samko, Kilbas, and Marichev (1993), Kiryakova (1994), Carpinteri
and Mainardi (1997), Podlubny (1999), and Hilfer (2000) have been instru-
mental in introducing FC to the pure and applied mathematics commu-
nity. FC has been applied in diffusion processes, modeling of the
mechanical properties of materials, signal processing, advection and dis-
persion of solutes in natural porous or fractured media, image processing,
modeling of the behavior of viscoelastic and viscoplastic materials under
external influences, pharmacokinetics, bioengineering, description of
mechanical systems subject to damping, relaxation, and reaction kinetics
of polymers, ultraslow processes, connections to the theory of random
walks, finance, control theory, and psychology. FC has substantial applica-
tions within the various fields of mathematics itself. One of the major
advantages of FC is that it includes the integer order calculus as a special
case (i.e., a superset of integer order calculus). Therefore, FC can accom-
plish what its counterpart cannot achieve, especially capturing the memory
and heredity of a process. FC is a useful and efficient tool to reveal many
phenomena in nature because nature has memory. We believe that FC will
be the only type of calculus in the future.
There are too many books available on the subject of FC. However, these
books separate out topics in a way that can be confusing to students and
less experienced researchers. There are some books addressing the “pure
mathematical” side of the problems without taking into consideration
those questions that arise in the applications mentioned earlier, and some
that present the engineer’s point of view without rigorous mathematical
justification. Whereas a unified approach to address a variety of topics
starting from theory to application along with source codes being available
is very much desirable for less experienced researchers, it will save their
time to be invested toward further advancements. All of our struggles at
one point of time as beginners and our efforts to make a way out gave us
an invaluable experience, one that impelled us to write this book.
An important goal of this book is to employ triangular orthogonal
functions and triangular strip operational matrices to devise new numer-
ical methods for simulation, identification, and control of fractional-order
processes. The use of orthogonal functions as bases of expansion for
squared integrable real-valued functions is a standard method in mathe-
matical analysis and computational techniques. Numerous sets of orthogo-
nal bases functions are available in mathematics. The existing sets of
orthogonal functions can be categorized into two classes. The first class
includes the classical sets of continuous functions such as sine-cosine
functions, Legendre, Laguerre, Chebyshev, Jacobi, and Hermite orthogonal
functions, and so on, which are continuous over their intervals of defini-
tion and consequently are well suited to approximate continuous func-
tions. The second class consists of piecewise constant functions with
Preface xv

inherent discontinuities. Walsh, block pulse, and Haar functions fall under
the second category. The triangular orthogonal function sets, which are the
foundation of most of numerical methods formulated in this book, are a
complementary pair of piecewise linear polynomial function sets evolved
from a simple dissection of block pulse function (BPF) set. The reason for
choosing orthogonal functions as basis of the numerical methods presented
in this book is that they can reduce the calculus of continuous dynamical
systems to an attractive algebra, that is, they can convert integral, integro-
differential, differential, differential-algebraic, and partial differential equa-
tions into a set of algebraic equations. The triangular functions are only
selected among the existing enormous orthogonal functions because it is
much easier to work with them than with others.
This book is organized into 10 chapters. The objectives, original contri-
butions, and key findings of each chapter are summarized in the following
paragraphs.
Chapter 1 is the backbone of the book, as it contains all of the mathematical
postulations used in the subsequent chapters of the book. The special math-
ematical functions that play a vital role in establishing the proper definition of
operators of fractional calculus are briefly reviewed. The most widely used
definitions and properties of fractional-order integrals and fractional-order
derivatives are provided. To analyze the behavior of linear lumped fractional-
order systems, the Laplace transforms of fractional-order operators are
derived, and then fractional-order systems are categorized along with a
discussion about their stability. Different types of fractional-order controllers
as well as advantages and disadvantages of the classical types are discussed.
Triangular orthogonal functions are presented along with approximation
formulae for estimating functions and fractional-order integrals. Finally,
triangular strip operational matrices, which are the basis of the proposed
robust controller tuning technique in Chapter 8, are derived from the classical
finite difference formula and the Grunwald-Letnikov fractional-order deriva-
tive. Source codes developed in MATLAB® for triangular function operational
matrices and triangular strip operational matrices are provided.
Weakly singular integral equations are extremely difficult to solve. In
Chapter 2, an effective numerical method is developed using triangular
orthogonal functions to solve weakly singular (WS) Fredholm, WS Volterra,
and WS Volterra-Fredholm integral equations. Mathematical theory regard-
ing the existence of unique solutions to weakly singular Volterra-Fredholm
integral equations is provided. The convergence of the approximate solution
to the actual solution is studied theoretically and numerically. The proposed
method is tested on a set of test problems and then applied to physical
process models described by weakly singular integral equations.
Abel’s integral equation, one of the very first integral equations, was
seriously investigated by Niels Henrik Abel in 1823 and by Liouville in
1832 as a fractional power of the operator of antiderivation. This equation is
encountered in the inversion of seismic travel times, stereology of spherical
xvi Preface

particles, spectroscopy of gas discharges (more generally, “tomography” of

cylindrically or spherically symmetric objects like, e.g., globular clusters of
stars), and determination of the refractive index of optical fibers and
electrochemistry. In Chapter 3, a novel numerical method using triangular
orthogonal functions is developed to solve Abel’s integral equation (frac-
tional-order integral equation) of the first and second kind. It is proved that
Abel’s integral equations considered in this chapter have a unique solution
in the given interval. The convergence analysis is carried out theoretically
and numerically to prove that the proposed numerical algorithm can offer
accurate approximate solutions that are very close to the true solutions of
Abel’s integral equations under consideration, provided that a relatively
small step size is employed. A wide variety of Abel’s integral equations is
solved to demonstrate the applicability, accuracy, and stability of the pro-
posed numerical algorithm. Encouraged by this success on the test pro-
blems, the proposed numerical method is applied to solve problems in
electrochemistry, which are modeled by Abel’s integral equations. The
obtained results confirm the practical appropriateness of the numerical
algorithm for applications of Abel’s integral equations.
Integro-differential equations of fractional order find their applications
in heat transfer, thermodynamics, electrical conduction of polymers, and
many more. It is well known that most of physical process models invol-
ving fractional-order integro-differential equations do not have exact solu-
tions. This fact has been the driving force for numerous researchers to
conduct research toward the development of efficient numerical methods
to simulate such physical process models. The objective of Chapter 4 is to
propose a novel numerical method based on triangular orthogonal func-
tions for the numerical solutions of fractional-order integro-differential
equations such as Fredholm integro-differential equations of fractional
order, Volterra integro-differential equations of fractional order, and Fred-
holm-Volterra integro-differential equations of fractional order. It is theo-
retically shown that there exists a unique solution to the general form of
the system of fractional-order integro-differential equations considered in
this chapter. Convergence analysis is conducted to prove that in the limit
of step size tends to zero, the proposed numerical method ensures the
convergence of the approximate solution to the exact solution of fractional-
order integro-differential equations considered. Numerical examples as
well as physical process models involving fractional-order integro-differ-
ential equations are solved to demonstrate the effectiveness of the pro-
posed numerical method.
The development of a single numerical method that is able to solve
different forms of fractional-order differential equations and fractional-
order differential-algebraic equations is the prime objective of Chapter 5.
Before construction of the numerical method, it is shown that the general
form of system of fractional-order differential equations encompassing the
aforesaid different forms has a unique solution in the given interval.
Preface xvii

Convergence analysis is carried out to show that the approximate solution

obtained by the proposed method can approach the original solution as the
step size decreases to zero. The proposed method is applied to physical
process models such as the Bagley-Torvik equation, the two-point Bagley-
Torvik equation, the plant-herbivore model, the computer virus model, the
chemical Akzo Nobel problem, Robertson’s system describing the kinetics
of autocatalytic reaction, and the high irradiance response of photo mor-
phogenesis. In addition to the proposed method, the most popular semi-
analytical techniques such as the Adomian decomposition method (ADM),
the homotopy analysis method (HAM), and the fractional differential
transform method with Adomian polynomials (FDTM) are implemented
as well on physical process models involving a stiff system of differential
equations or stiff differential-algebraic equations. It is astonishing to note
that ADM, HAM, and FDTM fail to simulate those process models even in
the neighborhood of the initial time point 0, although they have success-
fully simulated many other physical process models. By contrast, the
proposed method is able to produce valid approximate solution not only
in the vicinity of the initial time point 0 but also in the desired time
interval, which can be quite a bit larger than [0, 1].
In Chapter 6, the triangular functions–based numerical method is for-
mulated to simulate fractional diffusion-wave equation. It is theoretically
proved that the proposed method converges the approximate solution to
the original solution of fractional diffusion-wave equation in the limit of
step size tends to zero.
Because the geometric and physical interpretation of fractional calculus
is not as distinct as integer calculus, it is difficult to model real systems as
fractional-order systems directly based on mechanistic analysis. Therefore,
system identification is a practical way to model a fractional-order system,
using experimental or simulated process data. Chapter 7 introduces an
arbitrary order (note that the order can be integer or noninteger) system
identification method based on the triangular orthogonal functions to
estimate parameters including arbitrary differential orders and initial con-
ditions of a model under consideration from experimental or simulated
data. Five identification problems encompassing integer- and noninteger-
order linear and nonlinear systems are given to validate the proposed
method. It is proved that the proposed method works well for various
kinds of input excitation signal such as step signal, pseudo random binary
signal, square wave signal, Sawtooth wave signal, and pulse signal. The
obtained results are compared with the results of some of the existing
numerical methods, and it is found that the proposed method demon-
strates superior performance over those methods.
To tackle plant uncertainty issues, many controller design methods are
developed. The convenient one among these methods is designing a robust
fractional PI λ Dμ controller. Chapter 8 proposes a simple tuning technique
aimed to produce a robust noninteger order PID controller exhibiting iso-
xviii Preface

damping property during the reparameterization of a plant. The required

robustness property is achieved by allowing the fractional PID control
system to imitate the dynamics of a reference system with Bode’s ideal
transfer function in its forward path. The objective of designing robust
controller by tracking the dynamics of reference control system is defined
mathematically as an H∞ -optimal control problem. Fractional differential
systems are transformed into algebraic equations by the use of triangular
strip operational matrices. The H∞ -optimal control problem is then changed
to an ∞-norm minimization of a parameter (KC ; KI ; Kd ; λ ; μ) varying square
matrix. Global optimization techniques; Luus-Jaakola direct searche, and
particle swarm optimization are employed to find the optimum values of
fractional PID controller parameters. The proposed method of control
system design is implemented in heating furnace temperature control,
automatic voltage regulator systems, and some integer and fractional-order
process models. Fractional PIλ, fractional PDµ, PIλDµDµ2, fractional PID with
fractional-order filter, and the series form of fractional PID controller are
designed as optimal controllers using the triangular strip operational
matrix–based control design method. The performance of the proposed
fractional-order controller tuning technique is found to be better than the
performance of some fractional-order controller tuning methodologies
reported in the literature. Triangular strip operational matrices proposed
from the perspective of mathematics (for the solution of fractional differen-
tial and partial differential equation) finds its elegant application in the
proposed method of control system design.
Chapter 9 presents a new numerical method to find an equivalent finite
dimensional integer order system for an infinite dimensional fractional-
order system. The approximated rational integer order system owns char-
acteristics close enough to that of irrational fractional-order system that can
be used in place of the original fractional-order system. In comparison to
Crone, Carlson, Charef, Matsuda, and continued fraction expansion
approximation methods, the proposed method offers lower order rational
approximation that precisely mimics the dynamics of the original irrational
fractional-order system. One significant attribute of the proposed method,
which none of the abovementioned methods possess, is that the order of
rational approximation can be controlled while obtaining accurate approx-
imation to the fractional-order system.
Optimal control problems arise naturally in various areas of science,
engineering, and mathematics. Considerable work has been done in the
area of integer optimal control problems (IOCPs), whose dynamics are
described by conventional integer differential equations. Recently, it has
been demonstrated that fractional differential equations are more accurate
than integer differential equations to describe the dynamic behavior of many
real-world processes. Fractional optimal control problems (FOCPs) are a
subclass of classical optimal control problems whose dynamics are described
by fractional differential equations. It is well known that the analytical
Preface xix

solutions of FOCPs generally do not exist except for special cases, and
therefore, numerical methods to obtain an approximate solution have
become the preferred approach for solving FOCPs. An effective numerical
method is devised in Chapter 10 to solve FOCPs. The proposed method is
implemented on a set of examples comprising linear time invariant optimal
control problems, time-variant fractional-order optimal control problems,
nonlinear fractional-order optimal control problems, and two-dimensional
integer order optimal control problems. Comparisons between the obtained
results and that of some of the existing numerical methods shows the
superiority of the proposed method over most of the others.
This book may be treated as an interdisciplinary reference book, and it
also may be used as a textbook for courses related to numerical methods
for fractional-order systems, fractional-order process identification, frac-
tional-order controller design, and fractional-order optimal control. The
book is suitable for engineering and basic science researchers and scientists
irrespective of their disciplines. The broader scope of the book makes it
suitable for the budding researcher. Final year mechanical, electrical,
chemical, mathematics, physics, and biomedical graduate students will
find support when consulting this book for research-oriented courses. The
reader is expected to be acquainted with classical calculus (differential and
integral calculus, elementary theory of integral, differential, integro-differ-
ential, and partial differential equations), process identification and con-
trol, and optimal control. After reading Chapter 1, the reader will be able
to understand the concepts presented in the subsequent chapters. The
extensive literature survey on each concept addressed in the book is
deliberately avoided. Every chapter begins with the necessary basic infor-
mation and adequate background for the reader to grasp the concepts
discussed in the chapter. Source codes developed in MATLAB are pro-
vided in each chapter, allowing the interested reader to take advantage of
these codes to broaden and enhance the scope of the book itself as well as
develop new results. We hope that readers will find this book useful and
valuable in the advancement of their knowledge and their field. We look
forward to receiving comments and suggestions from researchers, pure
and applied mathematicians, scientists, and engineers.

India, April 2018 Seshu Kumar Damarla

Madhusree Kundu

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permis-

sion. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises
in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related
products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The Math-
Works of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the
MATLAB® software.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the reviewers: Dr. Sillas Hadjiloucas (Department of

Bio-engineering, University of Reading), Mr. Amr Elsonbaty (Engineering
Mathematics and Physics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura
University, Egypt), Dr. YangQuan Chen (University of California Merced),
and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions that helped
to enhance the quality of the book.
We would like to thank the CRC press team, in particular, Dr. Gagan-
deep Singh, Senior Editor (Acquisitions) for engineering/environmental
sciences, and CRC Press, for their patience, encouragement, invaluable
suggestions, and keeping trust in us during the process of writing this
book.
We are thankful to HOD, Chemical Engineering, NIT Rourkela, and
Director, NIT Rourkela for their kind cooperation during preparation of
the book. Our sincere thanks go to those who directly or indirectly helped
us during preparation of the book.
Last but not least, we thank our families for their unconditional love and
support.

xxi
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About the Authors

Seshu Kumar Damarla was born in the year 1985 in Chirala, Prakasam,
Andhra Pradesh, India. He did his B.Tech (Chemical Engineering) from
Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, India (2008), and
M.Tech (Chemical Engineering) from NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India (2011).
Mr. Damarla submitted his Ph.D dissertation (Developing Numerical
Methods for Simulation, Identification and Control of Fractional Order
Process) to NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India (2017). Mr. Damarla served as an
Assistant Professor for a short duration (from 5th August 2011 to 31st
December 2011) in Department of Chemical Engineering at Maulana Azad
National Institute of Technology Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, and for a
year (from July 2017 to July 2018) in Department of Chemical Engineering
at C.V. Raman College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Mr.
Damarla has published a couple of research articles in the internationally
refereed journals to his credit and also published in the proceedings of
national and international conferences. Mr. Damarla co-authored a refer-
ence textbook Chemometric Monitoring: Product Quality Assessment, Process
Fault Detection, and Applications (CRC Press). Mr. Damarla has been a
referee for Acta Biotheoretica, Journal of King Saud Science, and Applied and
Computational Mathematics. Mr. Damarla is a member of International
Association of Engineers (IAENG), Fractional Calculus and Application
Group, and Allahabad Mathematical Society.
Madhusree Kundu started her academic pursuits with a graduation in
chemistry, with honors (University of Calcutta) followed by graduation
and post-graduation in chemical engineering from the Rajabazar Science
College, University of Calcutta, (1990–1992). Dr. Kundu gained experience
as a process engineer at Simon Carves (I) Ltd., Kolkata (1993–1998). In the
next phase of her scholarly pursuit, Dr. Kundu earned her Ph.D from the
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur (1999–2004), and started her
academic profession as the faculty of the Chemical Engineering Group,
BITS Pilani, Rajasthan (2004–2006). She joined the NIT Rourkela in 2007
and is continuing there as Professor in the Department of Chemical
Engineering. Apart from teaching, she has focused her research activities
in chemometrics along with fractional order process modeling and control,
solution thermodynamics, and fluid-phase equilibria. Dr. Kundu has
authored several research articles in International refereed journals and
has a few book chapters, and a reference text book (Chemometric Monitor-
ing: Product Quality Assessment, Process Fault Detection, and Applications,
CRC Press) to her credit.

xxiii
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 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 161-185 the course of this_self-same
day 1 Odysseus shall | - come hither, as the old moon wanes, and
the new appears. He shall return, and take vengeance on all those
who here dishonour his wife and his a glorious son.’ Pe is ‘pee en To
him then, swineherd Eumaeus, didst thou _ make answer, and say:
“Old man, neither shall I, meseems, pay thee this reward for bearing
good tidings, nor shall Odysseus ever come to his home. Nay, drink
in peace, and let us turn our thoughts to other things, and do not
thou recall this to my mind ; for verily the heart in my breast is
grieved_ whenever any one makes mention of my good master. But
as for thy oath, we will let it be; yet - I would that Odysseus might
come, even as I desire, _ 1, and Penelope, and the old man Laertes,
and _ godlike Telemachus. But now it is for his son that I grieve
unceasingly, even for Telemachus, whom : Odysseus begot. When
the gods had made _him erow like a sapling, and I thought that he
would be among men no whit worse than his dear father, glorious in
form and comeliness, then some one of the immortals marred the
wise spirit within him, or haply some man, and he went to sacred
Pylos after tidings of his father. For him now the lordly wooers lie in
wait on his homeward way, that the race of godlike Arceisius may
perish out of Ithaca, and leave no name. But verily we will let him
be; he may be taken, or he may escape, and the son of Cronos
stretch forth his hand to guard him. But come, do thou, old man, tell
me of thine own. 1 In rendering AvedBayros by ‘‘ day,” instead of by
‘‘ year,” and in the interpretation of the whole eee I have ~ followed
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 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 186-214 7 sorrows, and declare me this
truly, that I may know - full well. Who art thou among men, and
from _ whence? Where is thy city, and where thy parents? ~ On
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thee to Ithaca? Who did they _ declare themselves to be? For
nowise, methinks, ' didst thou come hither on foot.”’ ' Then
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will frankly tell Hige all. ' Would that now we two might have food
and sweet _ wine for the while, to feast on in quiet here in thy hut,
and that others might go about their work ; easily then might I tell
on for a full year, and yet - in no wise finish the tale of the woes of
my spirit— _ even all the toils that I have endured by the will _ of
the gods. _ From broad Crete I declare that I am come by lineage,
the son of a wealthy man. And many. _ other sons too were born
and bred in his halls, true - sons of a lawful wife; but the mother
that hone me was bought, a eoncitbine. Yet Castor, son of Hylax, _
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born sons. He was at that time _ honoured as a god among the
Cretans in the land for his good estate, and his wealth, and his
glorious sons. But the fates of death bore him away to the _ house
of Hades, and his proud sons divided among _ them his substance,
and cast lots therefor. To me they gave a very small portion, and
allotted a _ dwelling. But I took unto me a wife from a house that
had wide possessions, winning het by my _ valour; for I was no
weakling, nor a coward in fight. Now all that strength is gone; yet
even so, _ in seeing the stubble, methinks thou mayest judge 49
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 RLS het THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 215-243 what the grain was;
for verily troubles in full | measure encompass me. But then Ares
and Athene gave me courage, and strength that breaks the ranks:
of-men; and whenever I picked the: best warriors ’ for an arabush
sowing the seeds of evil for the foe, _ never did my proud spirit
forbode death, but ever _ far the first did I leap forth, and slay with
my spear _ whosoever of the foe gave way in flight before me.! _
Such a man was [| in war, but labour in the field was _ never to my
liking, nor the care of a household, _ which rears goodly children,
but oared ships were _ ever dear to me, and wars, and polished
spears, and _ arrows,—grievous things, whereat others are wont to
shudder. But those things, I ween, were dear to me, which a god put
in my heart ; for different men _ take joy in different works. For
before the sons of _ the Achaeans set foot on the land of Troy, I had
_ nine times led warriors and swift-faring ships against _ foreign
folk, and great spoil had ever fallen to my _hands. Of this I would
choose what pleased my ‘ _ mind, and much I afterwards obtained
by lot. ‘Thus _ my house straightway grew rich, and thereafter I
became one feared and honoured among the Cretans. “ But when
Zeus, whose voice is borne afar, devised that hateful journey which
loosened the knees of “many a warrior, then they bade me and
glorious _Idomeneus to lead the ships to [lios, nor was there any
way to refuse, for the voice of the people pressed hard upon us.
There for nine years we sons _ of the Achaeans warred, and in the
tenth we sacked _ the city of Priam, and set out for home in our
ships, Band a god scattered the Achaeans. But for me, wretched
man that I was, Zeus, the counsellor, ? Or possibly, ‘‘ whoever was
less fleet of foot than I.” eh! E 2
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avayov fwovs, apiow épyalecOat avaynyn. | 52
 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 244-272 _ devised evil. For a month
only I remained, taking im Joy in my children, my wedded wife, and
my wealth; | and then to Egypt did my spirit bid me voyage with :
my godlike comrades, when I had fitted out my _ ships with care. .
Nine ships I fitted out, and the ‘ host gathered speedily. Then for six
days my _ trusty comrades feasted, and I gave them many ' victims,
that they might sacrifice to the gods, and _ prepare a feast for
themselyes; and on the seventh _ we embarked and set sail from
broad Crete, with the — j North Wind blowing fresh and fair, and ran
on easily _ as if down stream. No harm came to any of my _ ships,
but free from scathe and from disease we _ sat, and the wind and
the helmsman guided the shi ps. 4 : On the fifth day we came to
fair-flowing Aegyptus, : and in the river Aegyptus I moored my
curved © ships. Then verily I bade my trusty comrades to _remain
there by the ships, and to guard the ships, and I sent out scouts to
go to places of outlook. But my comrades, yielding to wantonness,
and led on by their own might, straightway set about wasting the
fair fields of the men of Egypt; and they carried off the women and
little children, and slew ‘the men; and the cry came quickly to the
city. Then, hearing the shouting, the people came forth at break of
day, and the whole plain was filled with a footmen, and chariots, and
the flashing of bronze. a But Zeus .who hurls the thunderbolt cast.
an’ evil : panic upon my comrades, and none had the courage _to
hold his ground and face the foe; for evil surrounded us on every
side. So then they slew many of us with the sharp bronze, and
others they led up to their city alive, to work for them perforce. But
io:
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 rd THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 273-300 n my heart Zeus himself put
this thought—I would that I had rather died and met my fate there
in Egypt, for still was sorrow to give me welcome. Straightway I put
off from my head my well-wrought - helmet, and the shield from off
my shoulders, and let the spear fall from my hand, and went toward
the chariot horses of the king. I clasped, and kissed his knees, and
he delivered me, and took pity on me, and, setting me in his chariot,
took me weeping to his home. Verily full many rushed upon me with
their ashen spears, eager to slay me, for they were exceeding angry.
But he warded them off, and had regard for the wrath of Zeus, the
stranger's god, who above all others hath indignation at evil deeds.
_ There then I stayed seven years, and much wealth did I gather
among the Egyptians, for all men gave me gifts. But when the
eighth circling year was come, then there came a man of Phoenicia,
well _ versed in guile, a greedy knave, who had already wrought
much evil among men. He prevailed upon me by his cunning, and
took me with him, until we reached Phoenicia, where lay his house
and his possessions. There I remained with him for a full year. But
when at length the months and the days were being brought to
fulfilment, as the year rolled round and the seasons came on, he set
me on a seafaring ship bound for Libya, having given lying counsel
to the end that I should convey a cargo with him, but in truth that,
when there, he might sell me and get a vast price. So I went with
him on board the ship, suspecting his guile, yet perforce. And she
ran _ before the North Wind, blowing fresh and fair, on a - mid-sea
course to the windward of Crete, and Zeus 39
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 a OT ee THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 301-327 devised destruction
for the men. But when we had left Crete, and no other land
appeared, but only sky and sea, then verily the son of Cronos set a
black cloud above the hollow ship, and the sea grew dark ‘beneath
it. Therewith Zeus thundered, and hurled his bolt upon the ship, and
she quivered from stem to stern, smitten by the bolt of Zeus, and
was filled with sulphurous smoke, and all the crew fell from out the
ship. Like sea-crows they were borne on the waves about the black
ship, and the god took from them their returning. But as for me,
Zeus himself when my heart was compassed. with woe, put into my
hands the: tossing! mast of the dark__ prowed ship, that I might
again escape destruction. _ Around this I clung, and was borne by
the direful winds. For nine days I was borne, but on the tenth black
night the great rolling wave brought me to _ the land of the
Thesprotians. There the king of _ the Thesprotians, lord Pheidon,
took me in, and _ asked no ransom, for his dear son came upon me,
_ overcome as I was with cold and weariness, and _ raised me by
the hand, and led me until he came to _ his father’s palace; and he
clothed me in a cloak and tunic, as raiment. “There I learned of
Odysseus, for the king said - that he had entertained him, and given
him welcome on his way to his native land. And he showed me _ all
the treasure that Odysseus had gathered, bronze, _ and gold, and
iron, wrought with toil; verily unto the _ tenth generation would it
feed his children after him, _ so great was the wealth that lay stored
for him in _ the halls of the king. But Odysseus, he said, had 1 Lit.
‘“‘raging.” Others render ‘“‘huge,” “of great length.” 59
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 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 323-354 gone to Dodona, to hear the
will of Zeus from the high-crested oak of the god, even how he
might return to the rich land of Ithaca after so long an absence,
whether openly or in secret. And moreover he swore in my own
presence, as he poured libations in his house, that the ship was
launched, and the men ready, who were to convey him to his dear
native land. But me he sent forth first, for a ship of the Thesprotians
chanced to be setting out for Dulichium, rich in wheat. Thither he
bade them to convey me with kindly care, to king Acastus. But an
evil counsel regarding me found favour in their hearts, that I might
even yet be brought into utter misery. When the sea-faring ship had
sailed far from the land, they presently sought to bring about for me
the day of slavery. They stripped me of my garments, my cloak and
tunic, and clothed me in other raiment, a vile ragged cloak and
tunic, even the tattered garments which thou seest hefore thine
eyes; and at evening they reached the tilled fields of clear-seen
Ithaca. Then with a twisted rope they bound me fast in the benched
ship, and themselves went ashore, and made haste to take their
supper by the shore of the sea. But as for me, the gods themselves
undid my bonds full easily, and, wrapping the tattered cloak about
my head, I slid down the smooth lading-plank,! and brought my
breast to the sea, and then struck out with both hands, and swam,
and very soon was out of the water, and away from them. Then I
went up to a place where there was a thicket of leafy wood, and lay
there crouching. And they went hither and thither with loud 1 So
Monro. The word is a doubtful one. Others, following Kystathius,
render ‘‘ steering-oar.” 59
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 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 355-382 - cries; but as there seemed to
be no profit in going » further in their search, they went back again -
on _ board their hollow ship. And the gods themselves hid me easily,
and led me, and brought me to the farmstead of a wise man; for still
haply it is my lot ne live.” ? To him then, swineherd Eumaeus, didst
thou make answer, and say: *‘ Ah, wretched stranger, verily thou
hast stirred my heart deeply in telling all the tale of _ thy sufferings
and:thy wanderings. But in this, me_ thinks, thou hast not spoken
aright, nor shalt thou persuade me with thy tale about Odysseus.
Why shouldst thou, who art in such plight, lie to no purpose? Nay, of
myself I know well regarding the re_ turn of my master, that he was
utterly hated of all _ the gods, in that they did not slay him among
the Trojans, or in the arms of his friends, when he had - wound up
the skein of war. Then would the whole ' host of the Achaeans have
made him a tomb, and for his son too he would have won great
glory in days to ' come. But as itis the spirits of the storm have
swept _ him away, and left no tidings. I, for my part, dwell -aloof
w:th the swine, nor do I go to the city, unless haply wise Penelope
bids me thither, when tidings come to her from anywhere. Then men
sit around him that comes, and question him closely, both those that
grieve for their lord, that has long been gone, and those who
rejoice, as they devour his substance without atonement. But I care
not to ask or enquire, since the time when an Aetolian beguiled me
with his story, one that had killed a man, and after wandering over
the wide earth came to my house, and I gave him kindly welcome.
He said that he had seen Odysseus among the Cretans at the house
of 67
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 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 383-413 Idomeneus, mending his ships
which storms had shattered. And he said that he would come either
by summer or by harvest-time, bringing much treasure along with
his godlike comrades. Thou too, old man of many sorrows, since a
god has brought thee to me, seek not to win my favour by lies, nor
in any wise to eajole me. It is not for this that I shall shew thee
respect or kindness, but from fear of Zeus, the stranger's god, and
from pity for thyself.”’ Then Odysseus of many wiles answered him,
and said : “ Verily thou hast in thy bosom a heart that is slow to
believe, seeing that in such wise, even with. an oath, I won thee
not, neither persuade thee. But eome now, let us make a covenant,
and the gods who hold Olympus shall be witnesses for us both in
time to come. If thy master returns to this house, clothe me in a
cloak and tunic, as raiment, and send me on my way to Dulichium,
where I desire to be. But if thy master does not come as I say, set
the slaves upon me, and fling me down from a great cliff, that
another beggar may beware of_deceiving.”’ And the goodly
swineherd answered him, and said : _ “ Aye, stranger, so should I
indeed win fair fame and prosperity among men both now and
hereafter, if I, who brought thee to my hut and gave thee
entertainment, should then slay thee, and take away thy dear life.
With a ready heart thereafter should I pray to Zeus, son of Cronos.
But it is now time for supper, and may my comrades soon be here,
that we may make ready a savoury supper in the hut.” Thus they
spoke to one another, and the swine and the swineherds drew near.
The sows they shut up to sleep in their wonted sties, and a
wondrous noise arose from them, as they were penned. Then the
goodly swineherd called to his comrades saying : 63
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 = Oh SE Sere et? THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 414-441 «Bring forth
the best of the boars, that I may slaughter him for the stranger who
comes from afar, and we too shall have some profit therefrom, whe
have long borne toil and suffering for the sake of the Pite-tusked
swine, while ethers devour our labour without atonement.” So
saying, he split wood with the pitiless bronze, and the others
brought in a fatted boar of five years _ good portion, albeit I am in
such plight.” old, and set him by the hearth. Nor did the swineherd
forget the immortals, for he had an understanding heart, but as a
first offering he cast into the fire bristles from the head of the white-
tusked boar, and made prayer to all the gods that wise Odysseus
might return to his own. house. ‘Then he raised himself up, and
smote the boar with a billet of oak, which he had left when_splitting
the wood, and the boar’s life left him. And the others cut the boar’s
throat, and singed him, and quickly cut_him up, and the swineherd
took as first offerings bits of raw flesh from all the limbs, and laid
them in the rich fat. _ These he cast into the fire, when he had
sprinkled _ them with barley meal, but the rest they cut up and _
spitted, and roasted it carefully, and drew it all oft _ the spits, and
cast it ina heap on platters. Then the _ swineherd stood up to carve,
for well did his heart - know what was fair, and he cut up the mess
and _ divided it into seven portions. One with a prayer he _ set aside
for the nymphs and for Hermes, son of Maia, _ and the rest he
distributed to each. And Odysseus he honoured with the long chine
of the white-tusked boar, and made glad the heart of his master;
and _ Odysseus of many wiles spoke to him, and said : ‘‘Rumaeus,
mayest thou be as dear to father Zeus as thou art to me, since thou
honourest me with a 05 VOL. I, F —
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 re PS eee THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 442-468 To him then,
swineherd Eumaeus, didst thou make _ answer, and say: “ Kat,
unhappy stranger, and have joy of such fare as is here. It is the god
that will give one thing and withhold another, even as seems good to
his heart; for he can do all things.” He spoke, and sacrificed the
firstling pieces to the gods that are for ever, and, when he had made
libations of the flaming wine, he placed the cup in the hands of
Odysseus, the eee of cities, and took his seat by his own portion.
And bread was served to them by Mesaulius, whom the swineherd
had gotten q by himself alone, while his master was gone, without a
a the knowledge of his mistress or the old Laertes, buying him of the
Taphians with his own goods. So they put forth their hands to the
good cheer lying ready before them. But when they had put from
them the desire of food and drink, Mesaulius took away the food,
and they were fain to go to their rest, sated with bread and meat.
Now the night came on, foul and without a moon, and Zeus rained
the whole night through, and the West Wind, ever the rainy wind,
blew strong. Then Odysseus spoke among them, makin ng trial of
the swineherd, to see whether he would strip off his own cloak and
give it him, or bid some other of his comrades to do so, since he
cared for him so greatly: “ Hear me now, Eumaeus, and all the rest
of you, his men, with a wish in my heart will I tell a tale; for the
wine bids me, befooling wine, which sets one, even though he be
right wise, to singing and laughing softly, and makes him stand up
and dance, aye, and brings forth a word which were better
unspoken. Still, since I have once spoken out, I will hide nothing.
Would that I were young and my strength firm as FS2
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Line"495 (= Iliad ii. 56) was rejected by Aristarchus. 68
 Te eee eee Re THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 469-496 when we made
ready our ambush, and led it beneath the walls of Troy. The leaders
were Odysseus and Menelaus, son of Atreus, and with them I was
third in command ; for so had they ordered it themselves. Now when
we had come to the city and the steep wall, round about the town in
the thick brushwood | among the reeds and swamp-land we lay,
crouching beneath our arms, and night came on, foul, when the
North Wind had fallen, and frosty, and snow came ; down on us
from above, covering us like rime, bitter cold, and ice formed upon
our shields. Now all the rest and cloaks and tunics, and slept in
peace, with their shields covering their shoulders, but I, when I set
out, had left my cloak behind with my comrades in my folly, for I did
not think that even so I should be cold, and had come with my
shield alone and my bright kilt.1. But when it was the third watch of
the night, and the stars had turned their course, then I spoke to
Odysseus, who was near me, nudging _ him with my elbow; and he
straightway gave ear: “©
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WAEOVAS Tapa vadpu eT oT puvele véeoOar. Tt Qoiddbar. apo &
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Kal airy av dépuat EBadrev. ev ‘Oduceds KATENEKT emt dé XAaivay
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venviar: ovdé cUBOTH nvoavev avToOe KotTOS, UMVY aro
KoLUNnOHVaL, — 5g | | | 1 Lines 503-6 were rejected by
Aristarchus. ® Lines 515-7 are omitted in many MSS. Pe
 ae THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 497-525 one to bear word to
Agamemnon, son of Atreus, shepherd of the. host, in the hope that
he might bid more men to come from the ships.’ «So he spoke, and
Thoas, son of Andraemon, sprang up quickly, and from him flung his
purple. cloak, and set out to run to the ships. Then in his garment I
gladly lay, and golden-throned Dawn appeared. Would that I were
young as then, and my strength as firm; then would one of the
swineherds in the farmstead give me a cloak both from kindness and
from respect for a brave warrior. But as it is they scorn me, since I
have foul raiment about me.”’ ~ To him then, swineherd Eumaeus,
didst thou make answer, and say: “ Old man, the tale thou hast told
is a good one, nor hast thou thus far spoken aught amiss or
unprofitably. Wherefore thou shalt lack neither clothing nor aught
else that a sore-tried suppliant should receive, when he meets one—
for this night at least; but in the morning thou shalt shake about
thee those rags of thine. For not many cloaks are here or changes of
tunics to put on, but each man has one alone. But when the dear
son of Odysseus comes, he will himself give thee a cloak and a tunic
as raiment, and will send thee whithersoever thy heart and spirit bid
thee go.” | So saying, he sprang up and placed a bed for Odysseus
near the fire, and cast upon it skins of sheep and goats. There
Odysseus lay down, and the swineherd threw over him a great thick
cloak, which he kept at hand for a change of clothing whenever a
terrible storm should arise. So there Odysseus slept, and beside him
slept the young men. But the swineherd liked not a bed in that
place, that he should lay him down away from
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— ; HOMER arAn oxy ap é&w iov amrifeto: yatpe 6

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ce TéTpn UTo yAapupH evdov, Bopéw ur twy7. 72
 THE ODYSSEY, XIV. 526-533 _the boars; so he made ready
to go outside. And Odysseus was glad that he took such care of his
~ master’s substance while he was afar. First Kumaeus _ flung his
sharp sword over his strong shoulders, and ~ then put about him a
cloak, very thick, to keep off the wind; and he picked up the fleece
of a large, well-fatted goat, took a sharp javelin to ward off dogs _
and men, and went forth to lie down to sleep where the white-
tusked boars slept beneath a hollow rock, in a place sheltered from
the North Wind. 73
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n 7 , eA wxeT, Odvaanos peyalvpou patdupov viov VOGTOU
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Kvdaripovo, 7 TOL Neo roptény parang 6€0 LN LEVOV UmVp" Ty
réuayov S ovx Umvos exe yAvKUS, GAN évi Oui vuKta Ov ap Bpoo
inv peNEONUATA TATPOS Eyerpev. ayxov & Lorapevn mpooepy
pavewmTes "AOnyyn “Thema , OUKETL KANG Sopen a aT O THN
Grado a KTHLATE TE TpOALTTOV avopas T év cotot Oomorow | |
ovTw UTEphiddous’ fun TOL KATA TaVTA haywot ! / \ Oy onl CQ\
KTHUATA SaccdmEevot, ov O€ THUGINY OdoV EXOys. arn btpuve
TaytoTa Bonv ayabov Mevédaov TeuTréwev, OPP ETL OlKOL
ApUmoVA pHTEpa TETLNS. On yap pa TAaTHP TE KaolyVNTOL TE
KENOVTAL Evpupaxye ynwacbar: o yap meptBadre arravtas
pvnotThpas S@potot kat éEw@peddev éedva* py vv TL OED
AEKNTL OOm@V Ex KTHUA PépnTat.4 oic0a yap olos Oupos évi
ornPecot yuvatkos: / %, > P) MA e/ > / _keivou BovreTas oiKov
oéAXew OS KEV OTrvin, fe x f \ / / TalowV O€ TPOTEPWY Kal
KoUpLoLoLo PidoLo 1 Line 19 was rejected by Aristarchus, 74 ;
 | ES a BOOK. XV But Pallas Athene went to spacious
Lacedaemon to remind the glorious son of great-hearted Odysseus
of his return, and to hasten his coming. She found ~Telemachus and
the noble son of Nestor lying in ‘the fore-hall of the palace of
glorious Menelaus. Now Nestor’s son was overcome with soft sleep,
but sweet sleep did not hold Telemachus, but all through the
immortal night anxious thoughts for his father kept him wakeful. And
flashing-eyed Athene stood near him, and said: en be his, thou dost
not well to wander longer far from thy home, leaving behind thee
thy wealth and men in thy house so insolent, lest they divide and
devour all thy possessions, and thou shalt have gone on a fruitless.
journey. Nay, rouse with all speed Menelaus, good at the war-cry, to
send thee ‘on thy way, that thou mayest find thy noble mother ‘still
in her home. For now her father and her brothers bid her wed
Eurymachus, for he surpasses all the wooers in his presents, and has
increased his gifts of wooing. Beware lest she carry forth from thy
halls some treasure against thy will. For thou _knowest what sort of
a spirit there is in a woman’s _ breast ; ; she is fain to increase the
house of the man : _who weds her, but of her former children and of
the lord of of her youth she takes no thought, when once he 7 | 75 |
|
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