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Functional programming in Python 1st Edition David
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Functional Programming
in Python

David Mertz
Functional Programming in Python
by David Mertz
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978-1-491-92856-1
[LSI]
 Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

(Avoiding) Flow Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Encapsulation 1
Comprehensions 2
Recursion 5
Eliminating Loops 7

Callables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Named Functions and Lambdas 12
Closures and Callable Instances 13
Methods of Classes 15
Multiple Dispatch 19

Lazy Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The Iterator Protocol 27
Module: itertools 29

Higher-Order Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Utility Higher-Order Functions 35
The operator Module 36
The functools Module 36
Decorators 37

iii
 Preface

What Is Functional Programming?

We’d better start with the hardest question: “What is functional pro‐
gramming (FP), anyway?”
One answer would be to say that functional programming is what
you do when you program in languages like Lisp, Scheme, Clojure,
Scala, Haskell, ML, OCAML, Erlang, or a few others. That is a safe
answer, but not one that clarifies very much. Unfortunately, it is
hard to get a consistent opinion on just what functional program‐
ming is, even from functional programmers themselves. A story
about elephants and blind men seems apropos here. It is also safe to
contrast functional programming with “imperative programming”
(what you do in languages like C, Pascal, C++, Java, Perl, Awk, TCL,
and most others, at least for the most part). Functional program‐
ming is also not object-oriented programming (OOP), although
some languages are both. And it is not Logic Programming (e.g.,
Prolog), but again some languages are multiparadigm.
Personally, I would roughly characterize functional programming as
having at least several of the following characteristics. Languages
that get called functional make these things easy, and make other
things either hard or impossible:

• Functions are first class (objects). That is, everything you can do
with “data” can be done with functions themselves (such as
passing a function to another function).
• Recursion is used as a primary control structure. In some lan‐
guages, no other “loop” construct exists.

v
 • There is a focus on list processing (for example, it is the source
of the name Lisp). Lists are often used with recursion on sublists
as a substitute for loops.
• “Pure” functional languages eschew side effects. This excludes
the almost ubiquitous pattern in imperative languages of assign‐
ing first one, then another value to the same variable to track
the program state.
• Functional programming either discourages or outright disal‐
lows statements, and instead works with the evaluation of
expressions (in other words, functions plus arguments). In the
pure case, one program is one expression (plus supporting defi‐
nitions).
• Functional programming worries about what is to be computed
rather than how it is to be computed.
• Much functional programming utilizes “higher order” functions
(in other words, functions that operate on functions that oper‐
ate on functions).

Advocates of functional programming argue that all these character‐

istics make for more rapidly developed, shorter, and less bug-prone
code. Moreover, high theorists of computer science, logic, and math
find it a lot easier to prove formal properties of functional languages
and programs than of imperative languages and programs. One cru‐
cial concept in functional programming is that of a
“pure function”—one that always returns the same result given the
same arguments—which is more closely akin to the meaning of
“function” in mathematics than that in imperative programming.
Python is most definitely not a “pure functional programming lan‐
guage”; side effects are widespread in most Python programs. That
is, variables are frequently rebound, mutable data collections often
change contents, and I/O is freely interleaved with computation. It is
also not even a “functional programming language” more generally.
However, Python is a multiparadigm language that makes functional
programming easy to do when desired, and easy to mix with other
programming styles.

Beyond the Standard Library

While they will not be discussed withing the limited space of this
report, a large number of useful third-party Python libraries for

vi | Preface
functional programming are available. The one exception here is
that I will discuss Matthew Rocklin’s multipledispatch as the best
current implementation of the concept it implements.
Most third-party libraries around functional programming are col‐
lections of higher-order functions, and sometimes enhancements to
the tools for working lazily with iterators contained in itertools.
Some notable examples include the following, but this list should
not be taken as exhaustive:

• pyrsistent contains a number of immutable collections. All

methods on a data structure that would normally mutate it
instead return a new copy of the structure containing the
requested updates. The original structure is left untouched.
• toolz provides a set of utility functions for iterators, functions,
and dictionaries. These functions interoperate well and form the
building blocks of common data analytic operations. They
extend the standard libraries itertools and functools and
borrow heavily from the standard libraries of contemporary
functional languages.
• hypothesis is a library for creating unit tests for finding edge
cases in your code you wouldn’t have thought to look for. It
works by generating random data matching your specification
and checking that your guarantee still holds in that case. This is
often called property-based testing, and was popularized by the
Haskell library QuickCheck.
• more_itertools tries to collect useful compositions of iterators
that neither itertools nor the recipes included in its docs
address. These compositions are deceptively tricky to get right
and this well-crafted library helps users avoid pitfalls of rolling
them themselves.

Resources
There are a large number of other papers, articles, and books written
about functional programming, in Python and otherwise. The
Python standard documentation itself contains an excellent intro‐
duction called “Functional Programming HOWTO,” by Andrew
Kuchling, that discusses some of the motivation for functional pro‐
gramming styles, as well as particular capabilities in Python.

Preface | vii
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Having brought the place at which the hour is given to the
meridian, set the hour index to the given hour; then turn the globe
about until the place where the hour is required comes to the
meridian, and the index will point out the hour at the said place.
Thus when it is Noon at London, it is
H. M.
Rome 0 52 P. M.
Constantinople 2 07 P. M.
At
Vera-Cruz 5 30 A. M.
Pekin in China 7 50 P. M.

Prob. XI. The Day of the Month being given, to

find those places on the globe where the
Sun will be Vertical, or in the Zenith, that
day.

Having found the Sun’s place in the ecliptic, bring the same to
the meridian, and note the degree over it; then turning the globe
round, all places that pass under that degree will have the Sun
vertical that day.

Prob. XII. A place being given in the Torrid

Zone, to find those two Days in which the
Sun shall be Vertical to the same.

Bring the given place to the meridian, and mark what degree of
latitude is exactly over it; then turning the globe about its axis, those
two points of the ecliptic, which pass exactly under the said mark,
are the Sun’s place; against which, upon the wooden horizon, you’ll
have the days required.

Prob. XIII. To find where the Sun is Vertical at

any given time assigned; or the Day of the
Month and the Hour at any Place (suppose
 London) being given, to find in what place
the Sun is Vertical at that very time.

Having found the Sun’s declination, and brought the first place
(London) to the meridian, set the index to the given hour, then turn
the globe about until the index points to XII at noon; which being
done, that place upon the globe which stands under the point of the
Sun’s declination upon the meridian, has the Sun that moment in the
Zenith.

Prob. XIV. The Day, and the Hour of the Day at

one place, being given; to find all those
places upon the Earth, where the Sun is
then Rising, Setting, Culminating (or on the
meridian) also where it is Day-light, Twilight,
Dark Night, Midnight; where the Twilight
then begins, and where it ends; the height
of the Sun in any part of the illuminated
hemisphere; also his depression in the
obscure hemisphere.

Having found the place where the Sun is vertical at the given
hour, rectify the globe for that latitude, and bring the said place to
the meridian.
Then all those places that are in the Western semicircle of the
horizon, have the Sun rising at that time.
Those in the Eastern semicircle have it setting.
To those who live under the upper semicircle of the meridian, it is
12 o’clock at noon. And,
Those who live under the lower semicircle of the meridian, have
it at midnight.
All those places that are above the horizon, have the Sun above
them, just so much as the places themselves are distant from the
horizon; which height may be known by fixing the quadrant of
altitude in the zenith, and laying it over any particular place.
In all those places that are 18 degrees below the Western side of
the horizon, the twilight is just beginning in the morning, or the day
breaks. And in all those places that are 18 degrees below the
Eastern side of the horizon, the twilight is ending, and the total
darkness beginning.
The twilight is in all those places whose depression below the
horizon does not exceed 18 degrees. And,
All those places that are lower than 18 degrees, have dark night.
The depression of any place below the horizon is equal to the
altitude of its Antipodes, which may be easily found by the quadrant
of altitude.

Prob. XV. The Day of the Month being given; to

show, at one view, the length of Days and
Nights in all places upon the Earth at that
time; and to explain how the vicissitudes of
Day and Night are really made by the
motion of the Earth round her axis in 24
hours, the Sun standing still.

The Sun always illuminates one half of the globe, or that

hemisphere which is next towards him, while the other remains in
darkness: And if (as by the last problem) we elevate the globe
according to the Sun’s place in the ecliptic, it is evident, that the Sun
(he being at an immense distance from the Earth) illuminates all that
hemisphere, which is above the horizon; the wooden horizon itself,
will be the circle terminating light and darkness; and all those places
that are below it, are wholly deprived of the solar light.
The globe standing in this position, those arches of the parallels
of latitude which stand above the horizon, are the Diurnal Arches, or
the length of the day in all those latitudes at that time of the year;
and the remaining parts of those parallels, which are below the
horizon, are the Nocturnal Arches, or the length of the night in those
places. The length of the diurnal arches may be found by counting
how many hours are contained between the two meridians, cutting
any parallel of latitude, in the Eastern and Western parts of the
horizon.
In all those places that are in the Western semicircle of the
horizon, the Sun appears rising: For the Sun, standing still in the
vertex (or above the brass meridian) appears Easterly, and 90
degrees distant from all those places that are in the Western
semicircle of the horizon; and therefore in those places he is then
rising. Now, if we pitch upon any particular place upon the globe,
and bring it to the meridian, and then bring the hour index to the
lower 12, which in this case, we’ll suppose to be 12 at noon;
(because otherwise the numbers upon the hour circle will not
answer our purpose) and afterwards turn the globe about, until the
aforesaid place be brought to the Western side of the horizon; the
index will then shew the time of the Sun rising in that place. Then
turn the globe gradually about from West to East, and minding the
hour index, we shall see the progress made in the day every hour, in
all latitudes upon the globe, by the real motion of the Earth round its
axis; until, by their continual approach to the brass meridian (over
which the Sun stands still all the while) they at last have noon day,
and the Sun appears at the highest; and then by degrees, as they
move Easterly the Sun seems to decline Westward, until, as the
places successively arrive in the Eastern part of the horizon, the Sun
appears to set in the Western: For the places that are in the horizon,
are 90 degrees distant from the Sun. We may observe, that all
places upon the Earth, that differ in latitude, have their days of
different length (except when the Sun is in the equinoctial) being
longer or shorter, in proportion to what part of the parallels stands
above the horizon. Those that are in the same latitude, have their
days of the same length; but have them commence sooner or later,
according as the places differ in longitude.
Prob. XVI. To explain in general the alteration of
Seasons, or length of the Days and Nights
made in all places of the World, by the Sun’s
(or the Earth’s) annual motion in the Ecliptic.

It has been shewed in the last problem, how to place the globe
in such a position as to exhibit the length of the diurnal and
nocturnal arches in all places of the Earth, at a particular time: If the
globe be continually rectified, according as the Sun alters his
declination, (which may be known by bringing each degree of the
ecliptic successively to the meridian) you’ll see the gradual increase
or decrease made in the days, in all places of the World, according
as a greater or lesser portion of the parallels of latitude, stands
above the horizon. We shall illustrate this problem by examples
taken at different times of the year.
1. Let the Sun be in the first point of ♋ (which happens on the
21st of June) that point being brought to the meridian, will shew the
Sun’s declination to be 23½ degrees North; then the globe must be
rectified to the latitude of 23½ degrees; and for the better
illustration of the problem, let the first meridian upon the globe be
brought under the brass meridian. The globe being in this position,
you’ll see at one view the length of the days in all latitudes, by
counting the number of hours contained between the two extreme
meridians, cutting any particular parallel you pitch upon, in the
Eastern and Western part of the horizon. And you may observe that
the lower part of the arctic circle just touches the horizon, and
consequently all the people who live in that latitude have the Sun
above their horizon for the space of 24 hours, without setting; only
when he is in the lower part of the meridian (which they would call
12 at night) he just touches the horizon.
To all those who live between the arctic circle and the Pole, the
Sun does not set, and its height above the horizon, when he is in the
lower part of the meridian, is equal to their distance from the arctic
circle: For example, Those who live in the 83d parallel have the Sun
when he is lowest at this time 13½ degrees high.
If we cast our eye Southward, towards the equator, we shall find,
that the diurnal arches, or the length of days in the several latitudes,
gradually lessen: The diurnal arch of the parallel of London at this
time is 16½ hours; that of the Equator (is always) 12 hours; and so
continually less, ’till we come to the Antarctic Circle, the upper part
of which just touches the horizon; just those who live in this latitude
have just one sight of the Sun, peeping as it were in the horizon:
And all that space between the antarctic circle and the South Pole,
lies in total darkness.
If from this position we gradually move the meridian of the globe
according to the progressive alterations made in the Sun’s
declination, by his motion in the ecliptic, we shall find the diurnal
arches of all those parallels, that are on the Northern side of the
equator, continually decrease; and those on the Southern side
continually increase, in the same manner as the days in those places
shorten and lengthen. Let us again observe the globe when the Sun
has got within 10 degrees of the equinoctial; now the lower part of
the 80th parallel of North latitude just touches the horizon, and all
the space betwixt this and the pole, falls in the illuminated
hemisphere: but all those parallels that lie betwixt this and the arctic
circle, which before were wholly above the horizon, do now intersect
it, and the Sun appears to them to rise and set. From hence to the
equator, we shall find that the days have gradually shortened; and
from the equator Southward, they have gradually lengthened, until
we come to the 80th parallel of the South latitude; the upper part of
which just touches the horizon; and all places betwixt this and the
South Pole are in total darkness; but those parallels betwixt this and
the antarctic circle, which before were wholly upon the horizon, are
now partly above it; the length of their days being exactly equal to
that of the nights in the same latitude in the contrary hemisphere.
This also holds universally, that the length of one day in one latitude
North, is exactly equal to the length of the night in the same latitude
South; and vice versa.
 Let us again follow the motion of the Sun, until he has got into
the equinoctial, and take a view of the globe while it is in this
position. Now all the parallels of latitude are cut into two equal parts
by the horizon, and consequently the days and nights are of equal
lengths, viz. 12 hours each, in all places of the world; the Sun rising
and setting at six o’clock, excepting under the two Poles, which now
lie exactly in the horizon: Here the Sun seems to stand still in the
same point of the heavens for some time, until by degrees, by his
motion in the ecliptic, he ascends higher to one and disappears to
the other, there being properly no days and nights under the Poles;
for there the motion of the Earth round its axis cannot be observed.
If we follow the motion of the Sun towards the Southern tropic,
we shall see the diurnal arches of the Northern parallels continually
decrease, and the Southern ones increase in the same proportion,
according to their respective latitudes; the North Pole continually
descending, and the South Pole ascending, above the horizon, until
the Sun arrives into ♑ , at which time all the space within the
antarctic circle is above the horizon; while the space between the
arctic circle, and its neighbouring Pole, is in total darkness. And we
shall now find all other circumstances quite reverse to what they
were when the Sun was in ♋ ; the nights now all over the world
being of the same length that the days were of before.
We have now got to the extremity of the Sun’s declination; and if
we follow him through the other half of the ecliptic, and rectify the
globe accordingly, we shall find the seasons return in their order,
until at length we bring the globe into its first position.
The two foregoing problems were not, as I know of, published in
any book on this subject before; and I have dwelt the longer upon
them, because they very well illustrate how the vicissitudes of days
and nights are made all over the world, by the motion of the Earth
round her axis; the horizon of the globe being made the circle,
separating light and darkness, and so the Sun to stand still in the
vertex. And if we really could move the meridian, according to the
change of the Sun’s declination, we should see at one view, the
continual change made in the length of days and nights, in all places
on the Earth; but as globes are fitted up, this cannot be done;
neither are they adapted for the common purposes, in places near
the equator, or any where in the Southern hemisphere. But this
inconvenience is now remedied (at a small additional expence) by
the hour circle being made to shift to either Pole; and some globes
are now made with an hour circle fixed to the globe at each Pole
between the globe and meridian, so as to have none without side to
interrupt the meridian from moving quite round the wooden horizon.

Prob. XVII. To shew by the globe, at one view,

the longest of the Days and Nights in any
particular places, at all times of the Year.

Because the Sun, by his motion in the ecliptic, alters his

declination a small matter every day; if we suppose all the torrid
zone to be filled up with a spiral line, having so many turnings; or a
screw having so many threads, as the Sun is days in going from one
tropic to the other: And these threads at the same distance from one
another in all places, as the Sun alters his declination in one day in
all those places respectively: This spiral line or screw will represent
the apparent paths described by the Sun round the Earth every day;
and by following the thread from one tropic to the other, and back
again, we shall have the path the Sun seems to describe round the
Earth in a year. But because the inclinations of these threads to one
another are but small, we may suppose each diurnal path to be one
of the parallels of latitude, drawn, or supposed to be drawn upon the
globe. Thus much being premised, we shall explain this Problem, by
placing the globe according to some of the most remarkable
positions of it, as before we did for the most remarkable seasons of
the year.
In the preceding problem, the globe being rectified according to
the Sun’s declination, the upper parts of the parallels of latitude,
represented the Diurnal Arches, or the length of the days all over the
world, at that particular time: Here we are to rectify the globe
according to the latitude of the place, and then the upper parts of
the parallels of declination are the diurnal arches; and the length of
the days at all times of the year, may be here determined by finding
the number of hours contained between the two extreme meridians,
which cut any parallel of declination in the Eastern and Western
points of the horizon; after the same manner, as before we found
the length of the day in the several latitudes at a particular time of
the year.
1. Let the place proposed be under the equinoctial, and let the
globe be accordingly rectified for 00 degrees of latitude, which is
called a direct position of the sphere. Here all the parallels of
latitude, which in this case we will call the parallels of declination,
are cut by the horizon into two equal parts; and consequently those
who live under the equinoctial, have the days and nights of the
same length at all times of the year; and also in this part of the
Earth, all the Stars rise and set, and their continuance above the
horizon, is equal to their stay below it, viz. 12 hours.
If from this position we gradually move the globe according to
the several alterations of latitudes, which we will suppose to be
Northerly; the lengths of the Diurnal Arches will continually increase,
until we come to a parallel of declination, as far distant from the
equinoctial, as the place itself is from the Pole. This parallel will just
touch the horizon, and all the heavenly bodies that are betwixt it and
the Pole never descend below the horizon. In the mean time, while
we are moving the globe, the lengths of the diurnal arches of the
Southern parallels of declination, continually diminish in the same
proportion that the Northern ones increased; until we come to that
parallel of declination which is so far distant from the equinoctial
Southerly, as the place itself is from the North Pole. The upper part
of this Parallel just touches the horizon, and all the Stars that are
betwixt it and the South Pole never appear above the horizon. And
all the nocturnal arches of the Southern parallels of declination, are
exactly of the same length with the diurnal arches of the
correspondent parallels of North declination.
 2. Let us take a view of the globe when it is rectified for the
latitude of London, or 51½ degrees North. When the Sun is in the
tropic of ♋ , the day is about 16½ hours; as he recedes from this
tropic, the days proportionably shorten, until, he arrives into ♑ ,
and then the days are at the shortest, being now of the same length
with the night, when the Sun was in ♋ , viz. 7½ hours. The lower
part of that parallel of declination, which is 38½ degrees from the
equinoctial Northerly, just touches the horizon; and the Stars that
are betwixt this parallel and the North Pole, never set to us at
London. In like manner the upper part of the Southern parallel of
38½ degrees just touches the horizon, and the Stars that lie betwixt
this parallel and the Southern Pole, are never visible in this latitude.
Again, let us rectify the globe for the latitude of the Arctic Circle,
we shall then find, that when the Sun is in ♋ , he touches the
horizon on that day without setting, being 24 hours compleat above
the horizon; and when he is in Capricorn, he once appears in the
horizon, but does not rise in the space of 24 hours: When he is in
any other point of the ecliptic, the days are longer or shorter,
according to his distance from the tropics. All the Stars that lie
between the tropic of Cancer, and the North Pole, never set in this
latitude; and those that are between the tropic of Capricorn, and the
South Pole, are always hid below the horizon.
If we elevate the globe still higher, the circle of perpetual
Apparition will be nearer the equator, as will that of perpetual
Occultation on the other side. For example, Let us rectify the globe
for the latitude of 80 degrees North: when the Sun’s declination is
10 degrees North; he begins to turn above the horizon without
setting; and all the while he is making his progress from this point to
the tropic of ♋ , and back again, he never sets. After the same
manner, when his declination is 10 degrees South, he is just seen at
noon in the horizon; and all the while he is going Southward, and
back again, he disappears, being hid just so long as before, at the
opposite time of the year he appeared visible.
 Let us now bring the North Pole into the Zenith, then will the
equinoctial coincide with the horizon; and consequently all the
Northern parallels are above the horizon, and all the Southern ones
below it. Here is but one day and one night throughout the year, it
being day all the while the Sun is to the Northward of the
equinoctial, and night for the other half year. All the Stars that have
North declination, always appear above the horizon, and at the same
height; and all those that are on the other side, are never seen.
What has been here said of rectifying the globe to North latitude,
holds for the same latitude South; only that before the longest days
were, when the Sun was in ♋ , the same happening now when the
Sun is in ♑ ; and so of the rest of the parallels, the seasons being
directly opposite to those who live in different hemispheres.
I shall again explain some things delivered above in general
terms, by particular problems.
But from what has been already said, we may first make the
following observations:
1. All places of the Earth do equally enjoy the
benefit of the Sun, in respect of time, and are equally
deprived of it, the Days at one time of the Year, being
exactly equal to the Nights at the opposite season.
2. In all places of the Earth, save exactly under the
Poles, the Days and Nights are of equal length (viz. 12
hours each) when the Sun is in the equinoctial.
3. Those who live under the equinoctial, have the
days and nights of equal lengths at all times of the
year.
4. In all places between the equinoctial and the
Poles, the days and nights are never equal, but when
the Sun is in the equinoctial points ♈ and ♎.
5. The nearer any place is to the equator, the less
is the difference between the length of the artificial
 days and nights in the said place; and the more
remote the greater.
6. To all the inhabitants lying under the same
parallel of latitudes the days and nights are of equal
lengths, and that at all times of the year.
7. The Sun is vertical twice a year to all places
between the tropics; to those under the tropics, once a
year; but never any where else.
8. In all places between the Polar Circles, and the
Poles, the Sun appears some number of days without
setting; and at the opposite time of the year he is for
the same length of time without rising; and the nearer
unto, or further remote from the Pole, those places
are, the longer or shorter is the Sun’s continued
presence or absence from the Pole.
9. In all places lying exactly under the Polar Circles,
the Sun, when he is in the nearest tropic, appears 24
hours without setting; and when he is in the contrary
tropic, he is for the same length of time, without
rising; but at all other times of the year, he rises and
sets there, as in other places.
10. In all places lying in the (Northern/Southern)
hemisphere, the longest day and shortest night, is
when the Sun is in the (Northern/Southern) tropic, and
on the contrary.

Prob. XVIII. The Latitude of any place, not

exceeding 66½ degrees, and the day of the
Month being given; to find the time of Sun-
rising and setting, and the length of the Day
and Night.
 Having rectified the globe according to the latitude, bring the
Sun’s place to the meridian, and put the hour index to 12 at noon;
then bring the Sun’s place the Eastern part of the horizon, and the
index will shew the time when the Sun rises. Again, turn the globe
until the Sun’s place be brought to the Western side of the horizon,
and the index will shew the time of Sun-setting.
The hour of Sun-setting doubled, gives the length of the day;
and the hour of Sun-rising doubled, gives the length of the night.
Let it be required to find when the Sun rises and sets at London
on the 20th of April. Rectify the globe for the latitude of London, and
having found the Sun’s place corresponding to May the 1st, viz. ♉
10¾ degrees, bring ♉ to 10¾ degrees to the meridian, and set the
index to 12 at noon; then turn the globe about ’till ♉ 10¾ degrees
be brought to the Eastern part of the horizon, and you’ll find the
index point 4¾ hours, this being doubled, gives the length of the
night 9½ hours. Again, bring the Sun’s place to the Western part of
the horizon, and the index will point 7¼ hours, which is the time of
Sun-setting; this being doubled, gives the length of the day 14½
hours.

Prob. XIX. To find the length of the longest and

shortest Day and Night in any given place,
not exceeding 66½ degrees of Latitude.

Note, The longest day at all places on the

(North/South) side of the equator, is when the Sun is
in the first point of (Cancer/Capricorn) Wherefore
having rectified the globe for the latitude, find the time
of Sun-rising and setting, and thence the length of the
day and night, as in the last problem, according to the
place of the Sun: Or, having rectified the globe for the
latitude, bring the solstitial point of that hemisphere,
to the East part of the horizon, and set the index to 12
at noon; then turning the globe about ’till the said
 solstitial point touches the Western side of the horizon,
the number of hours from noon to the place where the
index points (being counted according to the motion of
the index) is the length of the longest day; the
complement whereof to 24 hours, is the length of the
shortest night, and the reverse gives the shortest day
and the longest night.
Longest Day. Shor. N.
Deg. Hours. Hours.
45 15½ 8½
Thus in Lat. 51½ 16½ 7½
60 18½ 5½
If from the length of the longest day, you subtract 12 hours, the
number of half hours remaining, will be the Climate: Thus that place
where the longest day is 16½ hours, lies in the 9th Climate. And by
the reverse, having the Climate, you have thereby the length of the
longest day.

Prob. XX. To find in what Latitude the longest

Day is, of any given length, less than 24
hours.

Bring the solstitial point to the meridian, and set the index to 12
at noon; then turn the globe Westward, ’till the index points at half
the number of hours given; which being done, keep the globe from
turning round its axis, and slide the meridian up or down in the
notches, ’till the solstitial point comes to the horizon, then that
elevation of the Pole will be the latitude.
If the hours given be 16, the latitude is 49 degrees; if 20 hours,
the latitude is 63¼ degrees.

Prob. XXI. A place being given in one of the

Frigid Zones (suppose the Northern) to find
what number of Days (of 24 hours each) the
 Sun doth constantly shine upon the same,
how long he is absent, and also the first and
last Day of his appearance.

Having rectified the globe according to the latitude, turn it about

until some point in the first quadrant of the ecliptic (because the
latitude is North) intersects the meridian in the North point of the
horizon; and right against that point of the ecliptic on the horizon,
stands the day of the month when the longest day begins.
And if the globe be turned about ’till some point in the second
quadrant of the ecliptic cuts the meridian in the same point of the
horizon, it will shew the Sun’s place when the longest day ends,
whence the day of the month may be found, as before: Then the
number of natural days contained between the times the longest day
begins and ends is the length of the longest day required.
Again, turn the globe about, until some point in the third
quadrant of the ecliptic cuts the meridian in the South part of the
horizon; that point of the ecliptic will give the time when the longest
night begins. Lastly, turn the globe about, until some point in the
fourth quadrant of the ecliptic cuts the meridian in the South point of
the horizon; and that point of the ecliptic will be the place of the Sun
when the longest night ends.
Or, the time when the longest day or night begins, being known,
their end may be found by counting the number of days from that
time to the succeeding solstice; then counting the same number of
days from the solstitial day, will give the time when it ends.

Prob. XXII. To find in what Latitude the longest

Day is, of any given length less than 182
Natural Days.

Find a point in the ecliptic half so many degrees distant from the
solstitial point, as there are days given, and bring that point to the
meridian; then keep the globe from turning round its axis, and move
the meridian up or down until the aforesaid point of the ecliptic
comes to the horizon; that elevation of the Pole will be the latitude
required.
If the days given were 78, the latitude is 71½ degrees.
This method is not accurate, because the degrees in the ecliptic
do not correspond to natural days; and also because the Sun does
not always move in the ecliptic at the same rate; however, such
problems as these may serve for amusements.

Prob. XXIII. The day of the Month being given,

to find when the Morning and Evening
Twilight begins and ends, in any place upon
the Globe.

In the foregoing problem, by the length of the day, we mean the

time from Sun-rising to Sun-set; and the night we reckoned from
Sun-set, ’till he rose next morning. But it is found by experience,
that Total Darkness does not commence in the evening, ’till the Sun
has got 18 degrees below the horizon; and when he comes within
the same distance of the horizon next morning, we have the first
Dawn of Day. This faint light which we have in the morning and
evening, before and after the Sun’s rising and setting, is what we
call the Twilight. [4] Having rectified the globe for the latitude, the
zenith, and the Sun’s place, turn the globe and the quadrant of
altitude until the Sun’s place cuts 18 degrees below the horizon (if
the quadrant reaches so far) then the index upon the hour circle will
shew the beginning or ending of twilight after the same manner as
before we found the time of the Sun-rising and setting, in Prob. 18.
But by reason of the thickness of the wooden horizon, we can’t
conveniently see, or compute when the Sun’s place is brought to the
point aforesaid. Wherefore the globe being rectified as above
directed, turn the globe, and also the quadrant of altitude,
Westward, until that point in the ecliptic, which is opposite to the
Sun’s place, cuts the quadrant in the 18th degree above the horizon;
then the hour index will shew the time when day breaks in the
morning. And if you turn the globe and the quadrant of altitude,
until the point opposite to the Sun’s place cuts the quadrant in the
Eastern hemisphere, the hour hand will shew when twilight ends in
the evening. Or, having found the time from midnight when the
morning twilight begins, if you reckon so many hours before
midnight, it will give the time when the evening twilight ends.
Having found the time when twilight begins in the morning, find the
time of Sun-rising, by Prob. 18, and the difference will be the
duration of twilight.
Thus at London on the 12th of May twilight begins at three
quarters past one o’clock: The Sun rises at about half an hour past
four: Whence the duration of twilight now is 2¾ hours, both in the
morning and evening. On the 12th of November, the twilight begins
at half an hour past six, being somewhat above an hour before Sun-
rising.

Prob. XXIV. To find the time when total

Darkness ceases, or when the Twilight
continues from Sun-setting to Sun-setting, in
any given place.

Let the place be in the Northern hemisphere; then if the

complement of the latitude be greater than (the depression) 18
degrees, subtract 18 degrees from it, and the remainder will be the
Sun’s declination North, when total darkness ceases. But if the
complement of the latitude is less than 18 degrees, their difference
will be the Sun’s declination South, when the twilight begins to
continue all night. If the latitude is South, the only difference will be,
that the Sun’s declination will be on the contrary side.
Thus at London, when the Sun’s declination North is greater than
20½ degrees, there is no total darkness, but constant twilight, which
happens from the 26th of May to the 18th of July, being near two
months. Under the North Pole the twilight ceases, when the Sun’s
declination is greater than 18 degrees South, which is from the 13th
of November, ’till the 29th of January: So that notwithstanding the
Sun is absent in this part of the world for half a year together, yet
total darkness does not continue above 11 weeks; and besides, the
Moon is above the horizon for a whole fortnight of every month
throughout the year.

Prob. XXV. The day of the Month be given; to

find those places of the Frigid Zones, where
the Sun begins to shine continually without
setting; and also those places where he
begins to be totally absent.

Bring the Sun’s place to the meridian, and mark the number of
degrees contained betwixt that point and the equator; then count
the same number of degrees from the nearest Pole (viz. the North
Pole, if the Sun’s declination is Northerly, otherwise the South Pole)
towards the equator, and note that point upon the meridian; then
turn the globe about, and all the places which pass under the said
point, are those where the Sun begins to shine constantly, without
setting on the given day. If you lay the same distance from the
opposite Pole towards the equator, and turn the globe about, all the
places which pass under that point, will be those where the longest
night begins.
The Latitude of the place being given, to find the hour
of the day when the Sun shines.
If it be in the summer, elevate the Pole according to the latitude,
and set the meridian due North and South; then the shadow of the
axis will cut the hour on the Dial plate: For the globe being rectified
in this manner, the hour circle is a true Equinoctial Dial; the axis of
the globe being the Gnomon. This holds true in Theory, but it might
not be very accurate in practice, because of the difficulty in placing
the horizon of the globe truly horizontal, and its meridian due North
and South.
 If it be in the winter half year, elevate the South Pole according
to the latitude North, and let the North part of the horizon be in the
South part of the meridian; then the shade of the axis will show the
hour of the day as before: But this cannot be so conveniently
performed, tho’ the reason is the same as in the former case.
To find the Sun’s altitude, when it shines, by the Globe.
Having set the frame of the globe truly horizontal or level, turn
the North Pole towards the Sun, and move the meridian up or down
in the notches, until the axis casts no shadow; then the arch of the
meridian, contained betwixt the Pole and the horizon, is the Sun’s
altitude.
Note, The best way to find the Sun’s altitude, is by
a little quadrant graduated into degrees, and having
sights and a plummet to it: Thus, hold the quadrant in
your hand, so as the rays of the Sun may pass through
both the sights, the plummet then hanging freely by
the side of the instrument, will cut in the limb the
altitude required. These quadrants are to be had at the
instrument-makers, with lines drawn upon them, for
finding the hour of the day, and the azimuth; with
several other pretty conclusions, very entertaining for
beginners.
The Latitude and the Day of the Month being given, to
find the hour of the day when the Sun shines.
Having placed the wooden frame upon a level, and the meridian
due North and South, rectify the globe for the latitude, and fix a
needle perpendicularly over the Sun’s place: The Sun’s place being
brought to the meridian, set the hour index at 12 at noon, then turn
the globe about until the needle points exactly to the Sun, and casts
no shadow, and then the index will shew the hour of the day.

Prob. XXVI. The Latitude, the Sun’s Place, and

his Altitude, being given; to find the hour of
 the Day, and the Sun’s Azimuth from the
Meridian.

Having rectified the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the
Sun’s place, turn the globe and the quadrant of altitude, so that the
Sun’s place may cut the given degree of altitude: then the index will
show the hour, and the quadrant will cut the azimuth in the horizon.
Thus, if at London, on the 21st of August, the Suns altitude, be 36
degrees in the forenoon, the hour of the day will be IX, and the
Sun’s azimuth about 58 degrees from the South part of the meridian.
The Sun’s Azimuth being given, to place the Meridian
of the Globe due North and South, or to find a
Meridian Line when the Sun shines.
Let the Sun’s azimuth be 30 degrees South-Easterly, set the
horizon of the globe upon a level, and bring the North Pole into the
zenith; then turn the horizon about until the shade of the axis cuts
as many hours as is equivalent to the azimuth (allowing 15 degrees
to an hour) in the North-West part of the hour circle, viz. X at night,
which being done, the meridian of the globe stands in the true
meridian of the place. The globe standing in this position, if you
hang two plummets at the North and South points of the wooden
horizon, and draw a line betwixt them, you will have a meridian line;
which if it be on a fixed plane (as a floor or window) it will be a
guide for placing the globe due North and South, at any other time.

Prob. XXVII. The Latitude, Hour of the Day, and

the Sun’s place being given, to find the Sun’s
Altitude and Azimuth.

Rectify the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the Sun’s place,
then the number of degrees contained betwixt the Sun’s place and
the vertex, is the Sun’s meridional zenith distance; the complement
of which to 90 degrees, is the Sun’s meridian altitude. If you turn
the globe about until the index points to any other given hour, then
bringing the quadrant of altitude to cut the Sun’s place, you will have
the Sun’s altitude at that hour; and where the quadrant cuts the
horizon, is the Sun’s azimuth at the same time. Thus May the 1st at
London, the Sun’s meridian altitude will be 61½ degrees; and at 10
o’clock in the morning, the Sun’s altitude will be 52 degrees, and his
azimuth about 50 degrees from the South part of the meridian.

Prob. XXVIII. The Latitude of the place, and the

day of the Month being given; to find the
depression of the Sun below the Horizon,
and the Azimuth at any Hour of the Night.

Having rectified the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the
Sun’s place, take a point in the ecliptic exactly opposite to the Sun’s
place, and find the Sun’s altitude and azimuth, as by the last
problem, and these will be the depression and the altitude required.
Thus, if the time given be the 1st of December, at 10 o’clock at
night, the depression and azimuth will be the same as was found in
the last problem.

Prob. XXIX. The Latitude, the Sun’s Place, and

his Azimuth being given, to find his Altitude,
and the Hour.

Rectify the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the Sun’s place,
then put the quadrant of altitude to the Sun’s azimuth in the horizon,
and turn the globe ’till the Sun’s place meet the edge of the
quadrant, then the said edge will shew the altitude, and the index
point to the hour. Thus, May the 21st at London when the Sun is due
East, his altitude will be about 24 degrees, and the hour about VII in
the morning; and when his azimuth is 60 degrees South-Westerly,
the altitude will be about 44½ degrees, and the hour about 2¾ in
the afternoon.
Thus, the latitude and the day being known, and having besides
either the altitude, the azimuth, or the hour; the other two may be
easily found.

Prob. XXX. The Latitude, the Sun’s Altitude, and

his Azimuth being given; to find his Place in
the Ecliptic and the Hour.

Rectify the globe for the latitude and zenith, and set the edge of
the quadrant to the given azimuth; then turning the globe about,
that point of the ecliptic which cuts the altitude, will be the Sun’s
place. Keep the quadrant of the altitude in the same position, and
having brought the Sun’s place to the meridian, and the hour index
to 12 at noon, turn the globe about ’till the Sun’s place cuts the
quadrant of altitude, and then the index will point the hour of the
day.

Prob. XXXI. The Declination and Meridian

Altitude of the Sun, or of any Star being
given; to find the Latitude of the Place.

Mark the point of declination upon the meridian, according as it is

either North or South from the equator; then slide the meridian up
or down in the notches, ’till the point of declination be so far distant
from the horizon, as is the given meridian altitude; that elevation of
the Pole will be the latitude.
Thus, if the Sun’s, or any Star’s meridian altitude be 50 degrees,
and its declination 11½ degrees North, the latitude will be 51½
degrees North.

Prob. XXXII. The Day and Hour of a Lunar

Eclipse being known; to find all those Places
upon the Globe where the same will be
visible.
 [5] Find where the Sun is vertical at the given hour, and bring
that point to the zenith; then the Eclipse will be visible in all those
places that are under the horizon; Or, if you bring the Antipodes to
the place where the Sun is vertical, into the zenith, you will have the
places where the Eclipse will be visible above the horizon.
Note, Because Lunar eclipses continue sometimes
for a long while together, they may be seen in more
places than one hemisphere of the Earth; for by the
Earth’s motion round its axis, during the time of the
eclipse, the Moon will rise in several places after the
eclipse began.
Note, When an eclipse of the Sun is central, if you
bring the place where the Sun is vertical at that time,
into the zenith, some part of the eclipse will be visible
in most places within the upper hemisphere; but by
reason of the short duration of Solar eclipses, and the
latitude which the Moon commonly has at that time
(tho’ but small) there is no certainty in determining the
places where those eclipses will be visible by the
globe; but recourse must be had to calculations.

Prob. XXXIII. The Day of the Month, and Hour

of the Day, according to our way of
reckoning in England, being given; to find
thereby the Babylonic, Italic, and the Jewish,
or Judaical Hour.

1. To find the Babylonic Hour (which is the number of hours from

Sun-rising.) Having found the time of Sun-rising in the given place,
the difference betwixt this and the hour given, is the Babylonic Hour.
2. To find the Italic Hour (which is the number of hours from
Sun-setting.) Subtract the hour of Sun-setting from the given hour,
and the remainder will be the Italic Hour required.
 3. To find the Jewish Hour (which is ¹/₁₂ part of an Artificial
Day.) Find how many hours the day consists of; then say, as the
number of hours the day consists of is to 12 hours, so is the hour
since Sun-rising to the Judaical hour required.
Thus, if the Sun rises at 4 o’clock (consequently sets at 8) and
the hour given be 5 in the evening, the Babylonish hour will be the
13th, the Italic the 21st and the Jewish hour will be nine and three
quarters.
The converse being given, the hour of the day, according to our
way of reckoning in England, may be easily found.
The following Problems are peculiar to the Celestial Globe.

Prob. XXXIV. To find the Right Ascension and

Declination of the Sun, or any Fixed Star.

Bring the Sun’s place in the ecliptic to the meridian; then that
degree of the equator, which is cut by the meridian, will be the Sun’s
Right Ascension; and that degree of the meridian, which is exactly
over the Sun’s place, is the Sun’s Declination.
After the same manner, bring the place of any Fixed Star to the
meridian, and you will find its Right Ascension in the equinoctial, and
Declination of the meridian.
Thus, the right ascension and declination is found, after the same
manner as the longitude and latitude of a place upon the Terrestrial
Globe.
Note, The right ascension and declination of the
Sun vary every day; but the right ascension, &c. of the
Fixed Stars is the same throughout the year[6].
 The Sun’s Right Ascension. Declin.
Deg. Deg.
January 31 314 17⅓ S.
April 5 14¼ 6 N.
Thus on
July 21 120¼ 20½ N.
November 26 242¼ 21 S.

R. Asc. Dcl.
Deg. Deg.
Aldebaran 65 16 N.
Spica Virginis 197¾ 9¾ S.
Capella 74 45⅔
Syrius, or the Dog-Star 98¼ 16⅓
Note, The declination of the Sun may be found
after the same manner by the Terrestrial Globe, and
also his right ascension, when the equinoctial is
numbered into 360 degrees, commencing at the
equinoctial point ♈ : But as the equinoctial is not
always numbered so, and this being properly a
Problem in Astronomy, we choose rather to place it
here.
By the converse of this problem, having the right ascension and
declination of any point given, that point itself may be easily found
upon the globe.

Prob. XXXV. To find the Longitude and Latitude

of a given Star.

Having brought the solstitial colure to the meridian, fix the

quadrant of altitude over the proper Pole of the ecliptic, whether it
be North or South; then turn the quadrant over the given Star, and
the arch contained betwixt the Star and the ecliptic, will be the
latitude, and the degree cut on the ecliptic will be the Star’s
longitude.
Thus the latitude of Arcturus will be found to be 31 degrees
North, and the longitude 200 degrees from ♈ , or 20 degrees from
♎ : The latitude of Fomalhaut in the Southern Fish, 21 degrees
South, and longitude 299½ degrees, or ♑ 29½ degrees. By the
converse of this method, having the latitude and longitude of a Star
given, it will be easy to find the Star upon the globe.
The distance betwixt two Stars, or the number of degrees
contained betwixt them, may be found by laying the quadrant of
altitude over each of them, and counting the number of degrees
intercepted; after the same manner as we found the distance
betwixt two places on the Terrestrial Globe, in Prob. VII.

Prob. XXXVI. The Latitude of the Place, the Day

of the Month, and the Hour being given; to
find what Stars are then rising or setting,
what Stars are culminating, or on the
meridian, and the Altitude and Azimuth of
any Star above the Horizon; and also how to
distinguish the Stars in the Heavens one
from the other, and to know them by their
proper Names.

Having rectified the globe for the latitude, the zenith, and the
Sun’s place, turn the globe about until the index points to the given
hour, the globe being kept in this position.
All those Stars that are in (Eastern/Western) side of the horizon,
are then (Rising/Setting).
All those Stars that are under the meridian, are then culminating.
And if the quadrant of altitude be laid over the center of any
particular Star, it will show that Star’s altitude at that time; and
where it cuts the horizon, will be the Star’s azimuth from the North
or South part of the meridian.
The globe being kept in the same elevation, and from turning
round its axis, move the wooden frame about until the North and
South points of the horizon lie exactly in the meridian; then right
lines imagined to pass from the center thro’ each Star upon the
surface of the globe, will point out the real Star in the heavens,
which those on the globe are made to represent. And if you are by
the side of some wall whose bearing you know, lay the quadrant of
altitude to that bearing in the horizon, and it will cut all those Stars
which at that very time are to be seen in the same direction, or close
by the side of the said wall. Thus knowing some of the remarkable
Stars in any part of the heavens, the neighbouring Stars may be
distinguished by observing their situations with respect to those that
are already known, and comparing them with the Stars drawn upon
the globe.
Thus, if you turn your face towards the North, you will find the
North Pole of the globe points to the Pole Star; then you may
observe two Stars somewhat less bright than the Pole Star, almost in
a right line with it, and four more which form a sort of quadrangle;
these seven Stars make the constellation called the Little Bear; the
Pole-Star being in the tip of the tail. In this neighbourhood you will
observe seven bright Stars, which are commonly called Charles’s
Wane; these are the bright Stars in the Great Bear, and form much
such another figure with those before-mentioned in the little Bear:
The two foremost of the square lie almost in a right line with the
Pole Star, and are called the Pointers, so that knowing the Pointers,
you may easily find the Pole Star. Thus the rest of the Stars in this
constellation, and all the Stars in the neighbouring constellations
may be easily found, by observing how the unknown Stars lie either
in quadrangles, triangles, or strait lines from those that are already
known upon the globe.
After the same manner the globe being rectified, you may
distinguish those Stars that are to the Southward of you, and be
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