CIC-210: DBMS

Unit - 1 & 2
Structured Query Language

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

 The standard language used to create, modify, maintain,
and query relational databases.
 Available in a number of database management packages
based on the relational model of data, e.g., in ORACLE,
SQL Server, etc.
 Originally defined by D.D. Chamberlain in 1974.
 Underwent a number of modifications over the years.
Today, SQL has become an official ANSI standard.
 Allows for the data definition, manipulation and data
control for a relational database.
 All the three major facilities of SQL, namely, data
manipulation, data definition and data control are bound
together in one integrated language framework.

1
 SQL
 1974 - SEQUEL by D. Chamberlin (IBM)
 1975 - SQUARE by Boyce (System R project)
 1976 - SEQUEL/2 (SQL) by Chamberlin and Boyce)
 late 1970 - SQL(Oracle), QUEL(Ingres)
 1982 - Relational Database Language(RDL) : ANSI
 1987 - ISO standard
 1989 - Integrity Enhancement Feature (ISO)
 1992 - SQL2 (SQL92) : ISO
 1999 - SQL3 (SQL99) : ISO

Retrieval Queries in SQL

 SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information from a
database; the SELECT statement
 This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the relational
algebra
 Important distinction between SQL and the formal relational model;
SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more tuples that are
identical in all their attribute values
 Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes called a
bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples
 SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying PRIMARY
KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the DISTINCT option in a
query

2
Retrieval Queries in SQL (cont.)

 Basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is called a mapping or a SELECT-

FROM-WHERE block
SELECT <attribute list>
FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

 <attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose values are to be retrieved by the
query
 <table list> is a list of the relation names required to process the query
 <condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that identifies the tuples to be
retrieved by the query

3
Simple SQL Queries
 Basic SQL queries correspond to using the SELECT, PROJECT, and
JOIN operations of the relational algebra
 All subsequent examples use the COMPANY database
 Example of a simple query on one relation
 Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the employee whose
name is 'John B. Smith'.

Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT='B’
AND LNAME='Smith’

 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra operations; the

SELECT-clause specifies the projection attributes and the WHERE-
clause specifies the selection condition
 However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples

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Simple SQL Queries (cont.)
 Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO

 Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of relational

algebra operations
 (DNAME='Research') is a selection condition (corresponds to a
SELECT operation in relational algebra)
 (DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition (corresponds to a JOIN
operation in relational algebra)

Simple SQL Queries (cont.)

 Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project number,
the controlling department number, and the department manager's last
name, address, and birthdate.

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND PLOCATION='Stafford'

 In Q2, there are two join conditions

 The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its
controlling department
 The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling department
to the employee who manages that department

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Aliases, * and DISTINCT, Empty
WHERE-clause

 In SQL, we can use the same name for two (or more)
attributes as long as the attributes are in different
relations
A query that refers to two or more attributes with the
same name must qualify the attribute name with the
relation name by prefixing the relation name to the
attribute name
Example:

 EMPLOYEE.LNAME, DEPARTMENT.DNAME

ALIASES
 Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice
 In this case, aliases are given to the relation name
 Query 8: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name, and
the name of his or her immediate supervisor.

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,

S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

 In Q8, the alternate relation names E and S are called aliases

or tuple variables for the EMPLOYEE relation
 We can think of E and S as two different copies of
EMPLOYEE; E represents employees in role of supervisees
and S represents employees in role of supervisors

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ALIASES (cont.)
 Aliasing can also be used in any SQL query for convenience
Can also use the AS keyword to specify aliases

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,

S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause
 A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition; hence,
all tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are
selected
 This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE
 Query 9: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees.

Q9: SELECT SSN

FROMEMPLOYEE

 If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause

and there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN
PRODUCT of tuples is selected

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UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause (cont.)

 Example:

Q10: SELECT SSN, DNAME

FROMEMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

 It is extremely important not to overlook specifying any selection

and join conditions in the WHERE-clause; otherwise, incorrect
and very large relations may result

USE OF *
 To retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples,
a * is used, which stands for all the attributes
Examples:

Q1C: SELECT *
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5

Q1D: SELECT *
FROMEMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND
DNO=DNUMBER

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USE OF DISTINCT
 SQL does not treat a relation as a set; duplicate tuples
can appear
 To eliminate duplicate tuples in a query result, the
keyword DISTINCT is used
 For example, the result of Q11 may have duplicate
SALARY values whereas Q11A does not have any
duplicate values

Q11: SELECT SALARY

FROMEMPLOYEE
Q11A: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY
FROMEMPLOYEE

EXPLICIT SETS
 It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set of
values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested query
 Query 13: Retrieve the social security numbers of all
employees who work on project number 1, 2, or 3.

Q13: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROMWORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)

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NULLS IN SQL QUERIES
 SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL (missing
or undefined or not applicable)
 SQL uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it
considers each NULL value distinct from other NULL
values, so equality comparison is not appropriate .
 Query 14: Retrieve the names of all employees who do
not have supervisors.
Q14: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE SUPERSSN IS NULL
Note: If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL
values for the join attributes are not included in the result

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
 Query 15: Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary,
and the average salary among all employees.

Q15: SELECT MAX(SALARY),

MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)
FROMEMPLOYEE

 Some SQL implementations may not allow more than

one function in the SELECT-clause

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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (cont.)

 Query 16: Find the maximum salary, the minimum

salary, and the average salary among employees who
work for the 'Research' department.

Q16: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY),

AVG(SALARY)
FROMEMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research'

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (cont.)

 Queries 17 and 18: Retrieve the total number of

employees in the company (Q17), and the number of
employees in the 'Research' department (Q18).
Q17: SELECT COUNT (*)
FROMEMPLOYEE
Q18: SELECT COUNT (*)
FROMEMPLOYEE,
DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research’

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GROUPING
 In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate
functions to subgroups of tuples in a relation
 Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of
tuples that have the same value for the grouping
attribute(s)
 The function is applied to each subgroup
independently
 SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the
grouping attributes, which must also appear in
the SELECT-clause

GROUPING (cont.)
 Query 20: For each department, retrieve the department number,
the number of employees in the department, and their average
salary.

Q20:SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO

 In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups--each

group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO
 The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such
group of tuples separately
 The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and
the functions to be applied on each group of tuples
 A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

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GROUPING (cont.)
 Query 21: For each project, retrieve the project number,
project name, and the number of employees who work on
that project.

Q21: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

FROMPROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME

 In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after the joining
of the two relations

THE HAVING-CLAUSE
 Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of
these functions for only those groups that satisfy
certain conditions
 The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a
selection condition on groups (rather than on
individual tuples)

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 THE HAVING-CLAUSE (cont.)
 Query 22: For each project on which more than
two employees work , retrieve the project number,
project name, and the number of employees who
work on that project.

Q22: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT

(*)
FROMPROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2

SUBSTRING COMPARISON
 The LIKE comparison operator is used to
compare partial strings
 Two reserved characters are used: '%' (or '*' in
some implementations) replaces an arbitrary
number of characters, and '_' replaces a single
arbitrary character

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SUBSTRING COMPARISON (cont.)

 Query 25: Retrieve all employees whose address is

in Houston, Texas. Here, the value of the ADDRESS
attribute must contain the substring 'Houston,TX'.

Q25: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ADDRESS LIKE
'%Houston,TX%’

SUBSTRING COMPARISON (cont.)

 Query 26: Retrieve all employees who were born during

the 1950s. Here, '5' must be the 8th character of the string
(according to our format for date), so the BDATE value is
'_______5_', with each underscore as a place holder for a
single arbitrary character.

Q26: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE BDATE LIKE '_______5_’

 The LIKE operator allows us to get around the fact that

each value is considered atomic and indivisible; hence, in
SQL, character string attribute values are not atomic

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ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
 The standard arithmetic operators '+', '-'. '*', and '/' (for
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
respectively) can be applied to numeric values in an SQL
query result
 Query 27: Show the effect of giving all employees who
work on the 'ProductX' project a 10% raise.

Q27:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER AND
PNAME='ProductX’

ORDER BY
 The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples
in a query result based on the values of some
attribute(s)
 Query 28: Retrieve a list of employees and the
projects each works in, ordered by the
employee's department, and within each
department ordered alphabetically by employee
last name.
Q28: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE,
WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN
AND PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME

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ORDER BY (cont.)
 The default order is in ascending order of values
 We can specify the keyword DESC if we want a
descending order; the keyword ASC can be used
to explicitly specify ascending order, even though
it is the default

Summary of SQL Queries

 A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses, but only
the first two, SELECT and FROM, are mandatory. The
clauses are specified in the following order:

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition>]
[ORDER BY <attribute list>]

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Summary of SQL Queries (cont.)
 The SELECT-clause lists the attributes or functions to be
retrieved
 The FROM-clause specifies all relations (or aliases) needed in
the query but not those needed in nested queries
 The WHERE-clause specifies the conditions for selection and
join of tuples from the relations specified in the FROM-clause
 GROUP BY specifies grouping attributes
 HAVING specifies a condition for selection of groups
 ORDER BY specifies an order for displaying the result of a
query
 A query is evaluated by first applying the WHERE-clause, then
GROUP BY and HAVING, and finally the SELECT-clause

Data Definition
 Used to CREATE, ALTER , DROP, and
TRUNCATE the descriptions of the tables
(relations) of a database

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CREATE TABLE
 Specifies a new base relation by giving it a name,
and specifying each of its attributes and their data
types (INTEGER, FLOAT, DECIMAL(i,j),
CHAR(n), VARCHAR(n))
 A constraint NOT NULL may be specified on an
attribute
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT
( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9) );

CREATE TABLE
 In SQL2, can use the CREATE TABLE command for
specifying the primary key attributes, secondary keys, and
referential integrity constraints (foreign keys).
 Key attributes can be specified via the PRIMARY KEY
and UNIQUE phrases
CREATE TABLE DEPT
( DNAMEVARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP );

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DROP TABLE
 Used to remove a relation (base table) and its
definition
 The relation can no longer be used in queries,
updates, or any other commands since its
description no longer exists
 Example:

DROP TABLE DEPENDENT;

ALTER TABLE
 Used to add an attribute to one of the base relations
 The new attribute will have NULLs in all the tuples of the
relation right after the command is executed; hence, the
NOT NULL constraint is not allowed for such an attribute
 Example:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD JOB

VARCHAR(12);

 The database users must still enter a value for the new
attribute JOB for each EMPLOYEE tuple. This can be
done using the UPDATE command.

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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
OPTIONS
 We can specify RESTRICT, CASCADE, SET NULL or
SET DEFAULT on referential integrity constraints (foreign
keys)
CREATE TABLE DEPT
( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE );

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
OPTIONS (continued)
CREATE TABLE EMP
( ENAME VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
ESSN CHAR(9),
BDATE DATE,
DNO INTEGER DEFAULT 1,
SUPERSSN CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (ESSN),
FOREIGN KEY (DNO) REFERENCES DEPT
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (SUPERSSN) REFERENCES EMP
ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE );

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Additional Data Types in SQL2 and
SQL-99
Has DATE, TIME, and TIMESTAMP data types
 DATE:
 Made up of year-month-day in the format yyyy-mm-dd
 TIME:
 Made up of hour:minute:second in the format
hh:mm:ss
 TIME(i):
 Made up of hour:minute:second plus i additional digits
specifying fractions of a second
 format is hh:mm:ss:ii...i
 TIMESTAMP:
 Has both DATE and TIME components

Additional Data Types in SQL2 and

SQL-99 (cont.)

 INTERVAL:
 Specifies a relative value rather than an absolute
value
 Can be DAY/TIME intervals or YEAR/MONTH
intervals
 Can be positive or negative when added to or
subtracted from an absolute value, the result is an
absolute value

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Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2

 Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-clause

 Looks like any other relation but is the result of a join
 Allows the user to specify different types of joins
(regular "theta" JOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT OUTER
JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, CROSS JOIN, etc)

Joined Relations Feature

in SQL2 (cont.)
 Examples:

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

can be written as:

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEES
ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO

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 Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
 could be written as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT
ON DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research’

or as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)
WHERE DNAME='Research’

Joined Relations Feature

in SQL2 (cont.)
 Another Example;
 Q2 could be written as follows; this illustrates multiple
joins in the joined tables

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME,

BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM(PROJECT JOIN
DEPARTMENT ON
DNUM=DNUMBER) JOIN
EMPLOYEE ON
MGRSSN=SSN) )
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford’

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SET OPERATIONS
 SQL has directly incorporated some set operations
 There is a union operation (UNION), and in some
versions of SQL there are set difference (MINUS)
and intersection (INTERSECT) operations
 The resulting relations of these set operations are
sets of tuples; duplicate tuples are eliminated from
the result
 The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations ; the two relations must have the same
attributes and the attributes must appear in the
same order

SET OPERATIONS (cont.)

 Query 4: Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve an
employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a worker or as a manager of
the department that controls the project.

Q4: (SELECT PNAME

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND LNAME='Smith')
UNION (SELECT PNAME
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN AND
LNAME='Smith')

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NESTING OF QUERIES
 A complete SELECT query, called a nested query , can be specified
within the WHERE-clause of another query, called the outer query
 Many of the previous queries can be specified in an alternative form
using nesting
 Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' )

NESTING OF QUERIES (cont.)

 The nested query selects the number of the 'Research' department

 The outer query select an EMPLOYEE tuple if its DNO value is in
the result of either nested query
 The comparison operator IN compares a value v with a set (or
multi-set) of values V, and evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the
elements in V
 In general, we can have several levels of nested queries
 A reference to an unqualified attribute refers to the relation
declared in the innermost nested query
 In this example, the nested query is not correlated with the outer
query

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CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
 If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query references an
attribute of a relation declared in the outer query , the two queries are
said to be correlated
 The result of a correlated nested query is different for each tuple (or
combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the outer query
 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent
with the same first name as the employee.

Q12: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES

(cont.)

 In Q12, the nested query has a different result for each tuple in the
outer query
 A query written with nested SELECT... FROM... WHERE... blocks and
using the = or IN comparison operators can always be expressed as a
single block query. For example, Q12 may be written as in Q12A
Q12A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND
E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME

 The original SQL as specified for SYSTEM R also had a CONTAINS

comparison operator, which is used in conjunction with nested
correlated queries
 This operator was dropped from the language, possibly because of the
difficulty in implementing it efficiently

27
CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES
(cont.)
 Most implementations of SQL do not have this operator
 The CONTAINS operator compares two sets of values , and returns
TRUE if one set contains all values in the other set
(reminiscent of the division operation of algebra).
 Query 3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works on all the projects
controlled by department number 5.

Q3: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ( (SELECT PNO
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN)
CONTAINS
(SELECT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT
WHERE DNUM=5) )

CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES

(cont.)

 In Q3, the second nested query, which is not

correlated with the outer query, retrieves the
project numbers of all projects controlled by
department 5
 The first nested query, which is correlated,
retrieves the project numbers on which the
employee works, which is different for each
employee tuple because of the correlation

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THE EXISTS FUNCTION
 EXISTS is used to check whether the result of a
correlated nested query is empty (contains no
tuples) or not
 We can formulate Query 12 in an alternative form
that uses EXISTS as Q12B below

THE EXISTS FUNCTION (cont.)

 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee
who has a dependent with the same first name
as the employee.

Q12B: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND

FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

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 THE EXISTS FUNCTION (cont.)
 Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no
dependents.

Q6: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)

 In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT

tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the
EMPLOYEE tuple is selected
 EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL

Specifying Updates in SQL

 There are three SQL commands to modify the
database; INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE

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INSERT
 In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more
tuples to a relation
 Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command

INSERT (cont.)
 Example:

U1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE

VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52',
'98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000,'987654321', 4 )

 An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the attribute names

that correspond to the values in the new tuple
 Attributes with NULL values can be left out
 Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom we only
know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.

U1A: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME, SSN)

VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653')

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INSERT (cont.)
 Important Note: Only the constraints specified in
the DDL commands are automatically enforced
by the DBMS when updates are applied to the
database
 Another variation of INSERT allows insertion of
multiple tuples resulting from a query into a
relation

INSERT (cont.)
 Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the
name, number of employees, and total salaries for each department. A
table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3A, and is loaded with the summary
information retrieved from the database by the query in U3B.

U3A: CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO

(DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER,
TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);

U3B: INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME,

NO_OF_EMPS, TOTAL_SAL)
SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME ;

32
INSERT (cont.)
 Note: The DEPTS_INFO table may not be up-to-date if we
change the tuples in either the DEPARTMENT or the
EMPLOYEE relations after issuing U3B. We have to
create a view (see later) to keep such a table up to date.

DELETE
 Removes tuples from a relation
 Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be
deleted
 Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity constraint)
 A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an
empty table
 The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause
 Referential integrity should be enforced

33
DELETE (cont.)
 Examples:
U4A: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME='Brown’
U4B: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN='123456789’
U4C: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN
(SELECT DNUMBER
FROMDEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')
U4D: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

UPDATE
 Used to modify attribute values of one or more
selected tuples
 A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be
modified
 An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes
to be modified and their new values
 Each command modifies tuples in the same
relation
 Referential integrity should be enforced

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UPDATE (cont.)
 Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to 'Bellaire'
and 5, respectively.

U5: UPDATE PROJECT

SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire', DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10

UPDATE (cont.)
 Example: Give all employees in the 'Research' department a 10%
raise in salary.

U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

 In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the

original SALARY value in each tuple
 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of = refers to
the old SALARY value before modification
 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers to the
new SALARY value after modification

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Referential Integrity
 Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a
given set of attributes also appears for a certain set of
attributes in another relation.
 Example: If “Perryridge” is a branch name appearing in one of the
tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple in the
branch relation for branch “Perryridge”.
 Primary and candidate keys and foreign keys can be
specified as part of the SQL create table statement:
 The primary key clause lists attributes that comprise the primary
key.
 The unique key clause lists attributes that comprise a candidate
key.
 The foreign key clause lists the attributes that comprise the foreign
key and the name of the relation referenced by the foreign key. By
default, a foreign key references the primary key attributes of the
referenced table.

Referential Integrity in SQL –

Example
create table customer
(customer_name char(20),
customer_streetchar(30),
customer_citychar(30),
primary key (customer_name ))
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets numeric(12,2),
primary key (branch_name ))

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Referential Integrity in SQL –
Example (Cont.)
create table account
(account_number char(10),
branch_name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (account_number),
foreign key (branch_name) references branch )
create table depositor
(customer_name char(20),
account_number char(10),
primary key (customer_name, account_number),
foreign key (account_number ) references account,
foreign key (customer_name ) references customer )

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