What is Python?

Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van

Rossum, and released in 1991.

It is used for:

• web development (server-side),

• software development,
• mathematics,
• system scripting.

What can Python do?

• Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
• Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
• Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
• Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
• Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?
• Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry
Pi, etc).
• Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
• Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
• Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be
very quick.
• Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.

Good to know
• The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall
be using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being
updated with anything other than security updates, is still quite
popular.
• In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to
write Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as
 Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful
when managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming

languages
• Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
• Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
• Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such
as the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming
languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Execute Python Syntax

As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by
writing directly in the Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for

readability only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Try it Yourself »
Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Try it Yourself »

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, but it has to be at least

one.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Try it Yourself »

You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Try it Yourself »

Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:

Example
Variables in Python:

x = 5
y = "Hello, World!"

Try it Yourself »

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

You will learn more about variables in the Python Variables chapter.

Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.

Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:

Example
Comments in Python:

#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")

Python Comments
Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Try it Yourself »

Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest
of the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

Try it Yourself »

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be
used to prevent Python from executing code:

Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Try it Yourself »

Multi Line Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Try it Yourself »

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you
can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your
comment inside it:

Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")

Try it Yourself »

As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code,
but then ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.

Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Try it Yourself »

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)
Try it Yourself »
Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with
casting.

Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
Try it Yourself »

Get the Type

You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
Try it Yourself »

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Try it Yourself »

Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.
Example
This will create two variables:

a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

• A variable name cannot start with a number
• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
• Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three
different variables)

Example
Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Try it Yourself »

Example
Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"

Try it Yourself »

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Multi Words Variable Names
Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"

Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"

Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

• A variable name cannot start with a number
• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
• Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three
different variables)

Example
Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Try it Yourself »

Example
Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"

Try it Yourself »

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Multi Words Variable Names

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"

Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"
Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"

Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:

Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)
Try it Yourself »

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:

Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z = x + y
print(z)
Try it Yourself »

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)
Try it Yourself »

If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples
above) are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and

outside.

Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()
Try it Yourself »

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable
will be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable
with the same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global
variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
Try it Yourself »

The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local,
and can only be used inside that function.
To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
Try it Yourself »

Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a
function.

Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the
variable by using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do
different things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

 Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example
Print the data type of the variable x:

x = 5
print(type(x))

Try it Yourself »

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example

x = "Hello World"
x = 20

x = 20.5

x = 1j

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

x = range(6)

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36}

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"})

x = True

x = b"Hello"

x = bytearray(5)
 x = memoryview(bytes(5))

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Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example

x = str("Hello World")

x = int(20)

x = float(20.5)

x = complex(1j)

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

 x = range(6)

x = dict(name="John", age=36)

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

x = bool(5)

x = bytes(5)

x = bytearray(5)

x = memoryview(bytes(5))

Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

• int
• float
• complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.

Example
Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.

Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example
Floats:

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example
Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »
Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

Example
Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Try it Yourself »

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:
import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Try it Yourself »

Specify a Variable Type

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This
can be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as
such it uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

• int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float

literal (by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the
string represents a whole number)
• float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float
literal or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an
integer)
• str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals

Example
Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Try it Yourself »

Example
Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Try it Yourself »

Example
Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')
Try it Yourself »

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)
Try it Yourself »

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:
a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)
Try it Yourself »

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)
Try it Yourself »
Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in
the code.

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are
arrays of bytes representing unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is
simply a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
Try it Yourself »

Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
Try it Yourself »

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use
the keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Try it Yourself »

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")
Try it Yourself »

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can
use the keyword not in.

Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)
Try it Yourself »

Use it in an if statement:

Example
print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")
Try it Yourself »

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a
part of the string.

Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])
Try it Yourself »
Note: The first character has index 0.
Slice From the Start
By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])
Try it Yourself »

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])
Try it Yourself »

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())
Try it Yourself »

Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())
Try it Yourself »

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often
you want to remove this space.

Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"
Try it Yourself »

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Try it Yourself »

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified
separator becomes the list items.

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
Try it Yourself »

String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Example
Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + b
print(c)
Try it Yourself »

Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)
String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings
and numbers like this:

Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)
Try it Yourself »

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!

The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and places
them in the string where the placeholders {} are:

Example
Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))
Try it Yourself »

The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are placed
into the respective placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
Try it Yourself »

You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the
correct placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))
Try it Yourself »

Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:

Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is
surrounded by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

Try it Yourself »

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally
would not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Try it Yourself »

Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result
 \' Single Quote

\\ Backslash

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original
string.

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of w

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of w

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified v

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
 splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python
returns the Boolean answer:

Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)
Try it Yourself »

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:

Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:

a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
Try it Yourself »

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,

Example
Evaluate a string and a number:

print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Try it Yourself »

Example
Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Try it Yourself »
Most Values are True
Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.

Any string is True, except empty strings.

Any number is True, except 0.

Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.

Example
The following will return True:

bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Try it Yourself »

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty
values, such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of
course the value False evaluates to False.

Example
The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})
Try it Yourself »
One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you
have an object that is made from a class with a __len__ function that
returns 0 or False:

Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))
Try it Yourself »

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:

Example
Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())
Try it Yourself »

You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":

def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")
Try it Yourself »
Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of
a certain data type:

Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:

x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example
print(10 + 5)

Run example »

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Identity operators
• Membership operators
• Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

 + Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Examp

 and Returns True if both statements are true x<5a

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x<5o

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result is not(x <
true

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but
if they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Examp

is Returns True if both variables are the same x is y

object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the same x is no

object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an
object:
 Operator Description E

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not x

present in the object

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill left shift Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the le
 >> Signed right shift Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from t

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of
data, the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities
and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the
list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in
general: the order of the items will not change.
Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items
in a list after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example
Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

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List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

Try it Yourself »
List Items - Data Types
List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

Try it Yourself »

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type
'list':

<class 'list'>

Example
What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

Try it Yourself »
The list() Constructor
It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered* and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and
earlier, dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index
number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])
Try it Yourself »
Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])
Try it Yourself »

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
Try it Yourself »
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including,
"kiwi":
thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])
Try it Yourself »

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])
Try it Yourself »

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Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
list:

Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including
"mango" (-1):

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])
Try it Yourself »

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
Try it Yourself »

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the
new values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to
insert the new values:

Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted
where you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted
does not match the number of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted
where you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can
use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use
the extend() method.

Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable
The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable
object (tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example
Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example
Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist
Try it Yourself »

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example
Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
Try it Yourself »

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and
loop your way through the list items by refering to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i = i + 1
Try it Yourself »

Learn more about while loops in our Python While Loops Chapter.

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:

Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]
Try it Yourself »

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new
list based on the values of an existing list.

Example:

Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with
the letter "a" in the name.

Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)
Try it Yourself »

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)
Try it Yourself »

The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]

The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.

Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

Try it Yourself »

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than
"apple", making the new list contain all fruits except "apple".

The condition is optional and can be omitted:

Example
With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Try it Yourself »

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.

Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Try it Yourself »

Same example, but with a condition:

Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Try it Yourself »

Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome,
which you can manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:

Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:

newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]

Try it Yourself »

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':

newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]

Try it Yourself »

The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to
manipulate the outcome:

Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":

newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

Try it Yourself »

The expression in the example above says:

"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return orange".

Sort List Alphanumerically

List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically,
ascending, by default:

Example
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword
argument key = function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »
Case Insensitive Sort
By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters
being sorted before lower case letters:

Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key

function:

Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?

The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.

Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will
only be a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically
also be made in list2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List
method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
Try it Yourself »

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Join Two Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
Try it Yourself »
Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into
list1, one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)
Try it Yourself »

Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from
one list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
Try it Yourself »

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

 copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current li

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of

data, the other 3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and
usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove
items after the tuple has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Try it Yourself »

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the
item, otherwise Python will not recognize it as a tuple.

Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Try it Yourself »
Tuple Items - Data Types
Tuple items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

Try it Yourself »

A tuple can contain different data types:

Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:

tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type
'tuple':

<class 'tuple'>

Example
What is the data type of a tuple?

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))

Try it Yourself »
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double

round-brackets
print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered* and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and
earlier, dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

Example
Print the second item in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])
Try it Yourself »
Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])
Try it Yourself »

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the
specified items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])
Try it Yourself »
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included,
"kiwi":

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])
Try it Yourself »

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])
Try it Yourself »

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1
(excluded)

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])
Try it Yourself »

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove
items once the tuple is created.

But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples
are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the
list, and convert the list back into a tuple.

Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but
there are other ways to add items to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you
can convert it into a list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Try it Yourself »

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you
want to add one item, (or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and
add it to the existing tuple:

Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »
Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a
comma after the item, otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
use the same workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:

Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a
tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Try it Yourself »

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer
exists
Try it Yourself »

Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called
"packing" a tuple:

Example
Packing a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Try it Yourself »

But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables.
This is called "unpacking":

Example
Unpacking a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
Try it Yourself »
Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the
tuple, if not, you must use an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a
list.

Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add
an * to the variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a
list:

Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
Try it Yourself »

If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will
assign values to the variable until the number of values left matches the
number of variables left.

Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:

fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
Try it Yourself »

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])
Try it Yourself »

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0
and loop your way through the tuple items by refering to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

i = 0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i = i + 1
Try it Yourself »

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:

Example
Join two tuples:

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
Try it Yourself »

Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you
can use the * operator:

Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)
Try it Yourself »

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.
 Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position

Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and
usage.

A set is a collection which is both unordered and unindexed.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items
will appear.
Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and
cannot be referred to by index or key.

Unchangeable
Sets are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the
set has been created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new
items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

Try it Yourself »

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

Try it Yourself »

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type
'set':
<class 'set'>

Example
What is the data type of a set?

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

Try it Yourself »

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered* and changeable. No
duplicate members.

• Access Items
• You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
• But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a
specified value is present in a set, by using the in keyword.
• Example
• Loop through the set, and print the values:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)
• Try it Yourself »
• Example
• Check if "banana" is present in the set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)
• Try it Yourself »

• Add Items
• Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new
items.
• To add one item to a set use the add() method.
• Example
• Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
•

• Add Sets
• To add items from another set into the current set, use
the update() method.
• Example
• Add elements from tropical into thisset:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
•

• Add Any Iterable

• The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be
any iterable object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).
• Example
• Add elements of a list to at set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)

• Remove Item
• To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or
the discard() method.
• Example
• Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
• Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
• Example
• Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
• Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an
error.
• You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this
method will remove the last item. Remember that sets are unordered,
so you will not know what item that gets removed.
• The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
• Example
• Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
• Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not
know which item that gets removed.
• Example
• The clear() method empties the set:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)
• Try it Yourself »
• Example
• The del keyword will delete the set completely:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

• Loop Items
• You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
• Example
• Loop through the set, and print the values:
• thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)
• Try it Yourself »

• Join Two Sets

• There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
• You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all
items from both sets, or the update() method that inserts all the items
from one set into another:
• Example
• The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
• set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
• Try it Yourself »
• Example
• The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
• set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
• Try it Yourself »
• Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.
•

• Keep ONLY the Duplicates

• The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are
present in both sets.
• Example
• Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.intersection_update(y)

print(x)
• Try it Yourself »
• The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains
the items that are present in both sets.
• Example
• Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.intersection(y)

print(z)
• Try it Yourself »
•

• Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

• The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the
elements that are NOT present in both sets.
• Example
• Keep the items that are not present in both sets:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.symmetric_difference_update(y)

print(x)
• Try it Yourself »
 • The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that
contains only the elements that are NOT present in both sets.
• Example
• Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are
present in both:
• x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.symmetric_difference(y)

print(z)

• Set Methods
• Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between t

difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also includ

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two othe

 intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not presen

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or n

issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or

issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of t

symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set an

union() Return a set containing the union of sets

update() Update the set with the union of this set and othe

Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
 "year": 1964
}

Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and does not allow

duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by

using the key name.

Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Try it Yourself »

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a
defined order, and that order will not change.

Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot
refer to an item by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove
items after the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
 "year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data
type 'dict':

<class 'dict'>

Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered and changeable. No
duplicate members.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

Try it Yourself »

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

Try it Yourself »

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the keys:

x = thisdict.keys()
Try it Yourself »

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()
print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the values:

x = thisdict.values()
Try it Yourself »

The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs

x = thisdict.items()
Try it Yourself »

The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

Try it Yourself »

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given
argument.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value

pairs.

Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})
Try it Yourself »

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and
assigning a value to it:

Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given
argument. If the item does not exist, the item will be added.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value

pairs.

Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})
Try it Yourself »

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
Try it Yourself »

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7,
a random item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
Try it Yourself »

Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Try it Yourself »

Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer
exists.
Try it Yourself »

Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
Try it Yourself »

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return the values as well.

Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
Try it Yourself »

Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:

for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)
Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1,
because: dict2 will only be a reference to dict1, and changes made
in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)
Try it Yourself »

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)
Try it Yourself »

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.

Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}
Try it Yourself »

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:

Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the
other three dictionaries:

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value

get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert th

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

Python If ... Else
Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

• Equals: a == b
• Not Equals: a != b
• Less than: a < b
• Less than or equal to: a <= b
• Greater than: a > b
• Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if

statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example
If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

Try it Yourself »

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the
if statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we
know that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater
than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define
scope in the code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for
this purpose.

Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Try it Yourself »

Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were
not true, then try this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

Try it Yourself »

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but

the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding
conditions.

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
 print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

Try it Yourself »

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also
the elif condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to
screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Try it Yourself »

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line
as the if statement.

Example
One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Try it Yourself »

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you
can put it all on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement:

a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

Try it Yourself »

This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional

Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

Try it Yourself »

And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Try it Yourself »
Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

Try it Yourself »

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is
called nested if statements.

Example
x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

Try it Yourself »

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
an if statement with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting
an error.

Example
a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

Try it Yourself »

Python While Loops

Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:

• while loops
• for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a
condition is true.

Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

Try it Yourself »

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we
need to define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is
true:

Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1

Try it Yourself »

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue
with the next:

Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

i = 0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

Try it Yourself »
The else Statement
With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition
no longer is true:

Example
Print a message once the condition is false:

i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

Python For Loops

Python For Loops
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple,
a dictionary, a set, or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated
programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in
a list, tuple, set etc.

Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.
Looping Through a String
Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through
all the items:

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Try it Yourself »

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the
print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
Try it Yourself »

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The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop,
and continue with the next:

Example
Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by

default, and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example
Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible
to specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which
means values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):

Example
Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is

possible to specify the increment value by adding a third
parameter: range(2, 30, 3):

Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed
when the loop is finished:

Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Try it Yourself »

Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by
a break statement.
Example
Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:

for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Try it Yourself »

Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer
loop":

Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

Try it Yourself »

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with
no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass
Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Try it Yourself »

Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
can add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the
function to print the full name:

Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

Try it Yourself »

Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

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Parameters or Arguments?
The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing:
information that are passed into a function.

From a function's perspective:

A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function

definition.

An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.
Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the
function with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.

Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:
def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

Try it Yourself »
If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:

Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")

Try it Yourself »

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your
function, add a * before the parameter name in the function definition.

This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:

Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:

def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Try it Yourself »

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.

This way the order of the arguments does not matter.

Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

Try it Yourself »

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python

documentations.

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into
your function, add two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the
function definition.

This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access
the items accordingly:

Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the
parameter name:

def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Try it Yourself »

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python

documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Try it Yourself »

Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list,
dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the
function.

E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches
the function:

Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)

Try it Yourself »

Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:
Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

Try it Yourself »

The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a function definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid
getting an error.

Example
def myfunction():
pass

Try it Yourself »

Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can
call itself.

Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means

that a function calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop
through data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to
programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call

itself ("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1)
every time we recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater
than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this
works, best way to find out is by testing and modifying it.

Example
Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

Try it Yourself »

Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have
one expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed and the result is returned:

Example
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))
Try it Yourself »

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example
Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Try it Yourself »

Example
Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

Try it Yourself »

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Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous
function inside another function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that
argument will be multiplied with an unknown number:

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the
number you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))

Try it Yourself »

Or, use the same function definition to make a function that

always triples the number you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

Try it Yourself »

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same
program:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

Try it Yourself »

Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short

period of time.

Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can
be used instead.
Arrays
Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work
with arrays in Python you will have to import a library, like the NumPy
library.

Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example
Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

Try it Yourself »

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars
in single variables could look like this:

car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one?
And what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example
Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

Try it Yourself »

Example
Modify the value of the first array item:

cars[0] = "Toyota"

Try it Yourself »

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of
elements in an array).

Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array
index.

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Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example
Print each item in the cars array:
for x in cars:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example
Add one more element to the cars array:

cars.append("Honda")

Try it Yourself »

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:

cars.pop(1)

Try it Yourself »

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

cars.remove("Volvo")

Try it Yourself »

Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the
specified value.
Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current li

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

 reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can
be used instead.

Python Classes and Objects

Python Classes/Objects
Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x = 5

Try it Yourself »

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:
Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

Try it Yourself »

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are
not really useful in real life applications.

To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in

__init__() function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when
the class is being initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other

operations that are necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example
Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for
name and age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is
being used to create a new object.
Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that
belong to the object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

Try it Yourself »

Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class,
and is used to access variables that belong to the class.

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is
used to access variables that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it
has to be the first parameter of any function in the class:

Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
 mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()

Try it Yourself »

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:

Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:

p1.age = 40

Try it Yourself »

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:

Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object:

del p1.age

Try it Yourself »

Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:
Example
Delete the p1 object:

del p1

Try it Yourself »

The pass Statement

class definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a class definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting
an error.

Example
class Person:
pass

Try it Yourself »

Python Inheritance
Python Inheritance
Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and
properties from another class.

Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.

Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived
class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any
other class:
Example
Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and
a printname method:

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the
printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()

Try it Yourself »

Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the
parent class as a parameter when creating the child class:

Example
Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods
from the Person class:

class Student(Person):
pass

Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any other
properties or methods to the class.

Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person
class.

Example
Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute
the printname method:
x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()

Try it Yourself »

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Add the __init__() Function

So far we have created a child class that inherits the properties and methods
from its parent.

We want to add the __init__() function to the child class (instead of

the pass keyword).

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is
being used to create a new object.

Example
Add the __init__() function to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.

When you add the __init__() function, the child class will no longer inherit the
parent's __init__() function.

Note: The child's __init__() function overrides the inheritance of the

parent's __init__() function.

To keep the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function, add a call to the
parent's __init__() function:

Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

Try it Yourself »
Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the
inheritance of the parent class, and we are ready to add functionality in
the __init__() function.

Use the super() Function

Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the
methods and properties from its parent:

Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

Try it Yourself »

By using the super() function, you do not have to use the name of the parent
element, it will automatically inherit the methods and properties from its
parent.

Add Properties
Example
Add a property called graduationyear to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = 2019

Try it Yourself »

In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into
the Student class when creating student objects. To do so, add another
parameter in the __init__() function:

Example
Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

Try it Yourself »

Add Methods
Example
Add a method called welcome to the Student class:

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", self.firstname, self.lastname, "to the class of",
self.graduationyear)

Python Iterators
Python Iterators
An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.

An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can
traverse through all the values.

Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator

protocol, which consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().

Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are
iterable containers which you can get an iterator from.

All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:

Example
Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each value:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Try it Yourself »

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example
Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:

mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Try it Yourself »

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:

Example
Iterate the values of a tuple:

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Example
Iterate the characters of a string:

mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The for loop actually creates an iterator object and executes the next()
method for each loop.

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Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the
methods __iter__() and __next__() to your object.

As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have
a function called __init__(), which allows you to do some initializing when the
object is being created.

The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.),
but must always return the iterator object itself.

The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the
next item in the sequence.

Example
Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence
will increase by one (returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))

Try it Yourself »

StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next()
statements, or if it was used in a for loop.

To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use

the StopIteration statement.

In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an

error if the iteration is done a specified number of times:

Example
Stop after 20 iterations:

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
 if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)

Python Scope
A variable is only available from inside the region it is created. This is
called scope.

Local Scope
A variable created inside a function belongs to the local scope of that
function, and can only be used inside that function.

Example
A variable created inside a function is available inside that function:

def myfunc():
x = 300
print(x)

myfunc()

Try it Yourself »

Function Inside Function

As explained in the example above, the variable x is not available outside the
function, but it is available for any function inside the function:

Example
The local variable can be accessed from a function within the function:

def myfunc():
x = 300
def myinnerfunc():
print(x)
myinnerfunc()

myfunc()

Try it Yourself »

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Global Scope
A variable created in the main body of the Python code is a global variable
and belongs to the global scope.

Global variables are available from within any scope, global and local.

Example
A variable created outside of a function is global and can be used by anyone:

x = 300

def myfunc():
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Naming Variables
If you operate with the same variable name inside and outside of a function,
Python will treat them as two separate variables, one available in the global
scope (outside the function) and one available in the local scope (inside the
function):
Example
The function will print the local x, and then the code will print the global x:

x = 300

def myfunc():
x = 200
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Global Keyword
If you need to create a global variable, but are stuck in the local scope, you
can use the global keyword.

The global keyword makes the variable global.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = 300

myfunc()

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Also, use the global keyword if you want to make a change to a global
variable inside a function.

Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the
variable by using the global keyword:
x = 300

def myfunc():
global x
x = 200

myfunc()

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Python Modules
What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.

A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file
extension .py:

Example
Save this code in a file named mymodule.py

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:

Example
Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:
import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")

Run Example »

Note: When using a function from a module, use the

syntax: module_name.function_name.

Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of
all types (arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):

Example
Save this code in the file mymodule.py

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:

import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

Run Example »

Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file
extension .py
Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:

Example
Create an alias for mymodule called mx:

import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Run Example »

Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever
you like.

Example
Import and use the platform module:

import platform

x = platform.system()
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names)
in a module. The dir() function:

Example
List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:
import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you
create yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using
the from keyword.

Example
The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:

from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])

Run Example »
Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name
when referring to elements in the module.
Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["age"]
Python Datetime
Python Dates
A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but we can import a module
named datetime to work with dates as date objects.

Example
Import the datetime module and display the current date:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Date Output
When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:

2021-10-08 00:19:31.812718

The date contains year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond.

The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date
object.

Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this
chapter:

Example
Return the year and name of weekday:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))
Try it Yourself »

Creating Date Objects

To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of
the datetime module.

The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year, month,
day.

Example
Create a date object:

import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour,
minute, second, microsecond, tzone), but they are optional, and has a
default value of 0, (None for timezone).

The strftime() Method

The datetime object has a method for formatting date objects into readable
strings.

The method is called strftime(), and takes one parameter, format, to specify
the format of the returned string:

Example
Display the name of the month:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)

print(x.strftime("%B"))

Try it Yourself »

A reference of all the legal format codes:

Directive Description Ex

%a Weekday, short version W

%A Weekday, full version W

%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 3

%d Day of month 01-31 31

%b Month name, short version De

%B Month name, full version De

%m Month as a number 01-12 12

%y Year, short version, without century 18

%Y Year, full version 20

%H Hour 00-23 17

%I Hour 00-12 05

%p AM/PM PM

%M Minute 00-59 41

%S Second 00-59 08

%f Microsecond 000000-999999 54

%z UTC offset +

%Z Timezone CS

%j Day number of year 001-366 36

%U Week number of year, Sunday as the first day of week, 52

00-53
 %W Week number of year, Monday as the first day of week, 52
00-53

%c Local version of date and time M

%C Century 20

%x Local version of date 12

%X Local version of time 17

%% A % character %

%G ISO 8601 year 20

%u ISO 8601 weekday (1-7) 1

%V ISO 8601 weeknumber (01-53) 01

Python Math
Python has a set of built-in math functions, including an extensive math
module, that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on numbers.
Built-in Math Functions
The min() and max() functions can be used to find the lowest or highest value
in an iterable:

Example
x = min(5, 10, 25)
y = max(5, 10, 25)

print(x)
print(y)

Try it Yourself »

The abs() function returns the absolute (positive) value of the specified
number:

Example
x = abs(-7.25)

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The pow(x, y) function returns the value of x to the power of y (xy).

Example
Return the value of 4 to the power of 3 (same as 4 * 4 * 4):

x = pow(4, 3)

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The Math Module

Python has also a built-in module called math, which extends the list of
mathematical functions.

To use it, you must import the math module:

import math

When you have imported the math module, you can start using methods and
constants of the module.

The math.sqrt() method for example, returns the square root of a number:

Example
import math

x = math.sqrt(64)

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The math.ceil() method rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and
the math.floor() method rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer,
and returns the result:

Example
import math

x = math.ceil(1.4)
y = math.floor(1.4)

print(x) # returns 2
print(y) # returns 1

Try it Yourself »

The math.pi constant, returns the value of PI (3.14...):

Example
import math

x = math.pi

print(x)

Try it Yourself »
Python JSON
JSON is a syntax for storing and exchanging data.

JSON is text, written with JavaScript object notation.

JSON in Python
Python has a built-in package called json, which can be used to work with
JSON data.

Example
Import the json module:

import json

Parse JSON - Convert from JSON to

Python
If you have a JSON string, you can parse it by using the json.loads() method.

The result will be a Python dictionary.

Example
Convert from JSON to Python:

import json

# some JSON:
x = '{ "name":"John", "age":30, "city":"New York"}'

# parse x:
y = json.loads(x)

# the result is a Python dictionary:

print(y["age"])
Try it Yourself »

Convert from Python to JSON

If you have a Python object, you can convert it into a JSON string by using
the json.dumps() method.

Example
Convert from Python to JSON:

import json

# a Python object (dict):

x = {
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"city": "New York"
}

# convert into JSON:

y = json.dumps(x)

# the result is a JSON string:

print(y)

Try it Yourself »

You can convert Python objects of the following types, into JSON strings:

• dict
• list
• tuple
• string
• int
• float
• True
• False
• None

Example
Convert Python objects into JSON strings, and print the values:
import json

print(json.dumps({"name": "John", "age": 30}))

print(json.dumps(["apple", "bananas"]))
print(json.dumps(("apple", "bananas")))
print(json.dumps("hello"))
print(json.dumps(42))
print(json.dumps(31.76))
print(json.dumps(True))
print(json.dumps(False))
print(json.dumps(None))

Try it Yourself »

When you convert from Python to JSON, Python objects are converted into
the JSON (JavaScript) equivalent:

Python JSON

dict Object

list Array

tuple Array

str String

int Number

float Number
 True true

False false

None null

Example
Convert a Python object containing all the legal data types:

import json

x = {
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"married": True,
"divorced": False,
"children": ("Ann","Billy"),
"pets": None,
"cars": [
{"model": "BMW 230", "mpg": 27.5},
{"model": "Ford Edge", "mpg": 24.1}
]
}

print(json.dumps(x))

Try it Yourself »

Format the Result

The example above prints a JSON string, but it is not very easy to read, with
no indentations and line breaks.
The json.dumps() method has parameters to make it easier to read the result:

Example
Use the indent parameter to define the numbers of indents:

json.dumps(x, indent=4)

Try it Yourself »

You can also define the separators, default value is (", ", ": "), which means
using a comma and a space to separate each object, and a colon and a space
to separate keys from values:

Example
Use the separators parameter to change the default separator:

json.dumps(x, indent=4, separators=(". ", " = "))

Try it Yourself »

Order the Result

The json.dumps() method has parameters to order the keys in the result:

Example
Use the sort_keys parameter to specify if the result should be sorted or not:

json.dumps(x, indent=4, sort_keys=True)

Try it Yourself »

Python RegEx
A RegEx, or Regular Expression, is a sequence of characters that forms a
search pattern.
RegEx can be used to check if a string contains the specified search
pattern.

RegEx Module
Python has a built-in package called re, which can be used to work with
Regular Expressions.

Import the re module:

import re

RegEx in Python
When you have imported the re module, you can start using regular
expressions:

Example
Search the string to see if it starts with "The" and ends with "Spain":

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("^The.*Spain$", txt)

Try it Yourself »

RegEx Functions
The re module offers a set of functions that allows us to search a string for a
match:

Function Description
 findall Returns a list containing all matches

search Returns a Match object if there is a match anywhere in the string

split Returns a list where the string has been split at each match

sub Replaces one or many matches with a string

Metacharacters
Metacharacters are characters with a special meaning:

Character Description

[] A set of characters

\ Signals a special sequence (can also be used to escape special characters)

. Any character (except newline character)

^ Starts with
 $ Ends with

* Zero or more occurrences

+ One or more occurrences

{} Exactly the specified number of occurrences

| Either or

() Capture and group

Special Sequences
A special sequence is a \ followed by one of the characters in the list below,
and has a special meaning:

Character Description

\A Returns a match if the specified characters are at the beginning of the stri

\b Returns a match where the specified characters are at the beginning or at

word
(the "r" in the beginning is making sure that the string is being treated as
string")
 \B Returns a match where the specified characters are present, but NOT at th
(or at the end) of a word
(the "r" in the beginning is making sure that the string is being treated as
string")

\d Returns a match where the string contains digits (numbers from 0-9)

\D Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain digits

\s Returns a match where the string contains a white space character

\S Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain a white space charac

\w Returns a match where the string contains any word characters (characte
digits from 0-9, and the underscore _ character)

\W Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain any word characters

\Z Returns a match if the specified characters are at the end of the string

Sets
A set is a set of characters inside a pair of square brackets [] with a special
meaning:
 Set Description

[arn] Returns a match where one of the specified characters (a, r, or n) are pre

[a-n] Returns a match for any lower case character, alphabetically between a an

[^arn] Returns a match for any character EXCEPT a, r, and n

[0123] Returns a match where any of the specified digits (0, 1, 2, or 3) are prese

[0-9] Returns a match for any digit between 0 and 9

[0-5][0-9] Returns a match for any two-digit numbers from 00 and 59

[a-zA-Z] Returns a match for any character alphabetically between a and z, lower c

[+] In sets, +, *, ., |, (), $,{} has no special meaning, so [+] means: return
the string

The findall() Function

The findall() function returns a list containing all matches.
Example
Print a list of all matches:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("ai", txt)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The list contains the matches in the order they are found.

If no matches are found, an empty list is returned:

Example
Return an empty list if no match was found:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("Portugal", txt)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The search() Function

The search() function searches the string for a match, and returns a Match
object if there is a match.

If there is more than one match, only the first occurrence of the match will
be returned:

Example
Search for the first white-space character in the string:

import re
txt = "The rain in Spain"
x = re.search("\s", txt)

print("The first white-space character is located in position:",

x.start())

Try it Yourself »

If no matches are found, the value None is returned:

Example
Make a search that returns no match:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("Portugal", txt)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The split() Function

The split() function returns a list where the string has been split at each
match:

Example
Split at each white-space character:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", txt)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

You can control the number of occurrences by specifying

the maxsplit parameter:
Example
Split the string only at the first occurrence:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", txt, 1)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

The sub() Function

The sub() function replaces the matches with the text of your choice:

Example
Replace every white-space character with the number 9:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", txt)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

You can control the number of replacements by specifying

the count parameter:

Example
Replace the first 2 occurrences:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", txt, 2)
print(x)

Try it Yourself »
Match Object
A Match Object is an object containing information about the search and the
result.

Note: If there is no match, the value None will be returned, instead of the
Match Object.

Example
Do a search that will return a Match Object:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("ai", txt)
print(x) #this will print an object

Try it Yourself »

The Match object has properties and methods used to retrieve information
about the search, and the result:

.span() returns a tuple containing the start-, and end positions of the match.
.string returns the string passed into the function
.group() returns the part of the string where there was a match

Example
Print the position (start- and end-position) of the first match occurrence.

The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case
"S":

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.span())

Try it Yourself »

Example
Print the string passed into the function:

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.string)

Try it Yourself »

Example
Print the part of the string where there was a match.

The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case
"S":

import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.group())

Try it Yourself »

Note: If there is no match, the value None will be returned, instead of the
Match Object.

Python PIP
What is PIP?
PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or modules if you like.

Note: If you have Python version 3.4 or later, PIP is included by default.

What is a Package?
A package contains all the files you need for a module.

Modules are Python code libraries you can include in your project.
Check if PIP is Installed
Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and
type the following:

Example
Check PIP version:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip --version

Install PIP
If you do not have PIP installed, you can download and install it from this
page: https://pypi.org/project/pip/

Download a Package
Downloading a package is very easy.

Open the command line interface and tell PIP to download the package you
want.

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and
type the following:

Example
Download a package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip install camelcase

Now you have downloaded and installed your first package!

Using a Package
Once the package is installed, it is ready to use.

Import the "camelcase" package into your project.

Example
Import and use "camelcase":

import camelcase

c = camelcase.CamelCase()

txt = "hello world"

print(c.hump(txt))

Run Example »

Find Packages
Find more packages at https://pypi.org/.

Remove a Package
Use the uninstall command to remove a package:

Example
Uninstall the package named "camelcase":

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip uninstall camelcase

The PIP Package Manager will ask you to confirm that you want to remove
the camelcase package:

Uninstalling camelcase-02.1:
Would remove:
 c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-
32\lib\site-packages\camecase-0.2-py3.6.egg-info
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-
32\lib\site-packages\camecase\*
Proceed (y/n)?

Press y and the package will be removed.

List Packages
Use the list command to list all the packages installed on your system:

Example
List installed packages:

C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip list

Result:

Package Version
-----------------------
camelcase 0.2
mysql-connector 2.1.6
pip 18.1
pymongo 3.6.1
setuptools 39.0.1

Python Try Except

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.

The except block lets you handle the error.

The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the
try- and except blocks.

Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop
and generate an error message.

These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:

Example
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:

try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

Try it Yourself »

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.

Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:

Example
This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to
execute a special block of code for a special kind of error:

Example
Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other
errors:

try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")
Try it Yourself »

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Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no
errors were raised:

Example
In this example, the try block does not generate any error:

try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

Try it Yourself »

Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block
raises an error or not.

Example
try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

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This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:

Example
Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:

try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
try:
f.write("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
f.close()
except:
print("Something went wrong when opening the file")

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The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.

Raise an exception
As a Python developer you can choose to throw an exception if a condition
occurs.

To throw (or raise) an exception, use the raise keyword.

Example
Raise an error and stop the program if x is lower than 0:

x = -1

if x < 0:
raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")

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The raise keyword is used to raise an exception.

You can define what kind of error to raise, and the text to print to the user.

Example
Raise a TypeError if x is not an integer:
x = "hello"

if not type(x) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integers are allowed")

Python User Input

User Input
Python allows for user input.

That means we are able to ask the user for input.

The method is a bit different in Python 3.6 than Python 2.7.

Python 3.6 uses the input() method.

Python 2.7 uses the raw_input() method.

The following example asks for the username, and when you entered the
username, it gets printed on the screen:

Python 3.6
username = input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

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Python 2.7
username = raw_input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

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Python stops executing when it comes to the input() function, and continues
when the user has given some input.

Python String Formatting

To make sure a string will display as expected, we can format the result
with the format() method.

String format()
The format() method allows you to format selected parts of a string.

Sometimes there are parts of a text that you do not control, maybe they
come from a database, or user input?

To control such values, add placeholders (curly brackets {}) in the text, and
run the values through the format() method:

Example
Add a placeholder where you want to display the price:

price = 49
txt = "The price is {} dollars"
print(txt.format(price))

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You can add parameters inside the curly brackets to specify how to convert
the value:

Example
Format the price to be displayed as a number with two decimals:

txt = "The price is {:.2f} dollars"

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Multiple Values
If you want to use more values, just add more values to the format()
method:

print(txt.format(price, itemno, count))

And add more placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item number {} for {:.2f} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

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Index Numbers
You can use index numbers (a number inside the curly brackets {0}) to be
sure the values are placed in the correct placeholders:

Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49
myorder = "I want {0} pieces of item number {1} for {2:.2f} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

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Also, if you want to refer to the same value more than once, use the index
number:

Example
age = 36
name = "John"
txt = "His name is {1}. {1} is {0} years old."
print(txt.format(age, name))

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Named Indexes
You can also use named indexes by entering a name inside the curly
brackets {carname}, but then you must use names when you pass the
parameter values txt.format(carname = "Ford") :
Example
myorder = "I have a {carname}, it is a {model}."
print(myorder.format(carname = "Ford", model = "Mustang"))