ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22

MODULE 1

CHAPTER 1 - OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion when the motion is a

periodic and acceleration of the moving particle at any time is proportional to
the displacement and is directed to mean position of rest.
An oscillatory motion is a type of motion that can occur when a body is
subjected to a force that varies with time.
SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS
A particle is said to execute a simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is
proportional to its displacement from its equilibrium position, or any other fixed
point in its path, and is always directed towards it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

1. The motion is oscillatory and traces retraces the same path over and over
again
2. The particle moves in a straight line.
3. The restoring force is always directed towards the mean position of rest
4. The restoring force is proportional to the displacement of the particle
from the mean position of rest
The particle which satisfies the condition is (1) only is is said to execute and
which satisfies condition (1) and (2) is said to possess vibratory motion. The
particle executing simple harmonic motion must satisfy all the four conditions
(1), (2), (3) and (4).
The motion of earth around the sun is periodic motion.
The motion of Pendulum of a clock the motion of prong of A tuning fork are
examples for vibratory motion.
A pendulum whose length is made large and allowed to oscillate such that the
Earth of the oscillation is made so small that it approximate straight line is said
to be simple pendulum and it executes simple harmonic motion

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TYPES OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Three main types of simple harmonic motion
(1) Free oscillations - simple harmonic motion with constant amplitude and
period and no external influences.
Example: Simple pendulum that is set to swing.

(2) Damped oscillation - simple harmonic motion but with decreasing

amplitude and varying period due to external or internal damping forces.
Example: Internal forces in springs, shock absorbers in car to reduce vibration.

(3) Forced oscillation - simple harmonic motion that driven externally.

Eaxmple: Loudspeaker which is set to Vibration by the force on the magnet.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SHM

1. Displacement (x): The distance of the particle measured along the path
of the motion from its mean position at a given instant is called
displacement.

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷)

Where, x is the the displacement of the body at any instant

A is the maximum displacement and is known as amplitude
(ωt+Φ) is the phase angle
Φ is the initial phase that is phase at t = 0
t is the instant of time
ω is the angular frequency
2𝜋
𝜔 = 𝑇
= 2𝜋𝑓

2. Amplitude (A): The maximum distance covered by the body on either

side of the mean position is called as its amplitude.

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3. Velocity (v): The rate of change of position with respect to time is known
as velocity.

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝜔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷)
𝑑𝑡

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷) ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2

4. Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is

known as acceleration.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2𝑥
𝑎= = 2 = −𝜔 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷) ⇒ 𝑎 = −𝜔 2𝑥

5. Time period (T): The time taken to complete one oscillation by the
particle is known as time period.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘

6. Frequency (f or ν): Number of oscillations per unit time is known as

frequency.

1
𝑓=
𝑇

1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

7. Phase (ωt+Φ): The state of oscillation of the body by specifying the

position and direction of motion of the particle is known as phase.

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FREE OSCILLATIONS AND FREE OSCILLATORS

The oscillation of a body/system with its own natural frequency and under no
external influence other than the impulse initiated the motion is called free
oscillation. Free oscillation is simple harmonic motion with constant amplitude
and period and no external influences.
A system executing free oscillations is called as a free oscillator.

LOADED SPRING

Consider a spring ‘S’ upper end is fixed to a rigid support and lower end is
attached to a mass ‘M’. In the equilibrium position, the mass is at position ‘A’.
When the mass is displaced downwards and left, it oscillates in vertical
direction executing simple harmonic motion.
Suppose at any instant the mass is at the position 'B'. The distance AB = x is the
displacement. The directed distance the mass from its expiry position is called a
displacement. Spring is an example of an elastic object when stretched it exerts
a restoring force which tends to bring it back to its original length. The
restoring force 'F' acting on the body is due to the stiffness of the spring and is
given by Hooke's law.
Hooke's law states that within elastic limit, stress applied is directly
proportional to strain produced in a body.

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Restoring force directly proportional to displacement, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥
F = -kx -------------------- (1)
Where K is a constant spring constant
F is the restoring force
-ve sign in shows the force is directed upwards (i.e., opposing
force)
According to Newton's second law the net force applied to a body produces a
proportional acceleration
F = ma -------------------- (2)

Where, m is the mass of the body

a is acceleration produced
At equilibrium net force is equal to restoring force
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 -------------------- (3)
ma = -kx
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑘
+ 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑 2𝑥
+ 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 -------------------- (4)
𝑑𝑡 2
Above is the differential equation for simple harmonic motion or free
oscillations
𝑘 𝑘 𝑚
Where 𝜔2 = , 𝜔= √ , 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ , 𝑓=
𝑚 𝑚 𝑘

1 𝑘
√
2𝜋 𝑚

FORCE CONSTANT / SPRING CONSTANT / STIFFNESS FACTOR (K)

Stiffness is the rigidity of an object i,e,. the extent to which it resists the
deformation in response to the applied force. The complementary concept is

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1 0 -2
flexibility. 𝒌 = 𝑭/𝒙 Dimensions of k = [M L T ], Units of k is newton per
metre N/m Force constant is defined as the applied force (F) if the displacement
(x) in the spring is unity. It is denoted by 'k'
APPLICATIONS OF FORCE CONSTANT
Most common use of constant force spring would be retractable projection
screens, doors, cable, toys, hair dryer, gym equipment, space and aviation,
military, tool manufacturing and automotive.

COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
SPRINGS IN SERIES COMBINATION: When two springs are connected end to
end then it is called series connection, When a force is applied to the combined
spring, the same force is applied to each individual spring. Since the springs
have different spring constants, the displacements are different. But force
applied is same
SPRINGS IN PARALLEL COMBINATION: When two springs are connected to the
same end then it is called parallel connection. When a force is applied to the
combined spring, the force applied on each individual spring is different. But
displacement with be same.

SPRINGS IN SERIES

Consider two negligible/massless springs obeying

Hooke's law connected as shown in the figure end to
end. They are said to be connected in series. A constant
force F is exerted on them so that the springs are
extended by the same force. Alternatively the direction
of force could be reversed so that the springs are
compressed forth exerted on spring S1 and S2 are same.
Therefore, the same weight causes the elongation in
both springs and displaces by distance 'x'. Although the force exerted is same,
spring constant are not same hence displacement / elongation by springs will
be different.

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Let the displacement by spring S1with spring constant ‘k1’ be x1 and
displacement by spring S2 with spring constant ‘k2’ to be x2. Now the effective
displacement xeff due to the combination of spring S 1 and S2 in series by an
external force 'F' is the sum of displacement x 1 and x2.
𝑥𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝐹
W k t, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑥=𝑘

Substitute (2) in (1),

𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐹1 𝐹2
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘2
Since same force is exerted on both the springs,
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘2
1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑘1+𝑘2
We can say in general if number of strings are connected in series which have
different Spring Constant the multi spring system can be regarded as consisting
of single spring of effective spring constant and is given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛
 Effective springs constant of two springs connected in series is given by
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘𝑠 =
𝑘1 +𝑘2
If two springs with same spring constant ‘k’ are connected in series then the
effective Spring Constant will be reduced to half its original spring constant
value.
𝑘
𝑘𝑠 =
2
Corresponding expressions for time and frequency are as follows

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𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 2𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√
𝑘 𝑘𝑠 √ 𝑘1𝑘2 𝑘 𝑘
𝑘1 +𝑘2 2

𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘
1 𝑘 1 𝑘𝑠 1 √ 𝑘1 +𝑘2 1 √2 1 𝑘
𝑓= √ = √ = = = √
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 2𝑚

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
Consider two massless / negligible mass springs oven
hooks law connected as shown in the diagram to the same
end. They are said to be connected in parallel let the
spring S1 and S2 have spring constant k1 and k2
respectively. A constant force F is exerted on the rod so
that it remains perpendicular to the direction of the force.
Alternatively the direction of the force could be reversed
so that the springs are compressed. Lead displacement by
spring S1 and S2 having Spring Constant K1 and K2 be X1
and X2 respectively now this system of two parallel spring
is equivalent to a single spring of spring constant k.
Now the effective displacement due to combination of spring S1 and S2 in
parallel by an external force is sum of the displacement of individual spring x1
and X2
𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 W k t, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 𝑥2
Let us assume that the thin rod Connecting two spring S1 and S2 will stay
straight and hence the stretch is same for both x1 and x2 which implies both S1
and S2 having same displacement.
 𝑥𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2𝑥
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

 Effective springs constant of two springs connected in series is given by

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𝑘𝑃 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
In general, if a number of springs are connected in parallel which have different
Spring Constant then such multi spring system can be regarded as consisting of
single spring of effective spring constant and is as given below,
𝑘𝑃 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛
If two springs with same spring constants are connected in parallel then the
effective Spring Constant will be increased to twice its initial value / original
spring constant
𝑘𝑃 = 2𝑘
Corresponding expressions for time and frequency are as follows

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√
𝑘 𝑘𝑝 𝑘1+𝑘2 2𝑘

1 𝑘 1 𝑘𝑝 1 𝑘1 +𝑘2 1 2𝑘
𝑓= √ = √ = √ = √
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚

COMPLEX NOTATION AND PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC

MOTION
The phasor representation provides all the information we need to describe the
motion, It provides both amplitude and phase information. Phasor diagram
representation of an oscillating quantity as a vector rotating in a phase space
with an angular velocity equal to the angular frequency of the original
trigonometric function. The projection of phasor onto an Axis at any specific
time gives the value of the quantity at that time special diagrams are used in
simple harmonic motion and LCR circuits.

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION

W.R.T. TIME
Let us consider, simple harmonic motion at any instant of time t which is given
by

Displacement 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷),

Velocity 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷),
Acceleration 𝑎 = −𝜔 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷)

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The velocity is ahead of displacement by phase angle of π/2. The acceleration

is ahead of velocity by phase angle π /2.

(i) Displacement graph is a sine curve. Maximum displacement of the particle is

𝑥 = ±𝐴
(ii) Velocity of the particle is maximum at mean position and is zero at extreme
position 𝑣 = ±𝐴𝜔
(iii) Acceleration of particle is zero at the mean position and maximum at the
extreme position 𝑎 = ∓𝐴𝜔 2
When the motion of a particle performing uniform circular motion is projected
onto its diameter, the projection undergoes simple harmonic motion. The
circular motion representation of SHM is the phase diagram or phasor, and the
angular velocity of this circular motion is the frequency of the SHM ω. Above
diagram is an example of phasor, where ϕ is the initial phase angle or phase
constant.
If uniform circular motion has radius A, angular frequency ω and zero initial
phase, then the angle between the radius (of length A) and the x axis is ωt as
shown. The rotating arm here is called a phasor, which is a combination of
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vector and phase, because the direction of the vector (the angle it makes with
the x axis) gives the phase.

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS AND DAMPED OSCILLATOR

An oscillator is anything that has a rhythmic periodic response. A damped
oscillation means and oscillation that fades away with time.An oscillator in
actual practice, always experience is functional or resistive medium like a oil-
water extra part of its energy is dissipated in overcoming the opposing
frictional or viscous forces and its amplitude therefore goes on decreasing
progressive.
When a body executing simple harmonic vibration is left to itself, the amplitude
of vibration gradually decreases. After sometime the vibrations completely die
out. This is because the motion of the body is resisted by various friction effects.
These forces (retarding forces) reduces the amplitude and the damp the
oscillations. Oscillations of a body are called damped oscillations.
Consider a body of mass 'm' move in straight line under a force proportional to
the distance to the fixed point, the initial position of rest, under a small
resistance to its motion. The force due to resistance is proportional to velocity
of the particle for small value of the velocity. Let 'x' be the displacement and
dx/dt be the instantaneous velocity. Such a damped harmonic oscillator
experiences two forces.

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A damped harmonic oscillator experiences two forces

(i) One due to the restoring force displaced spring which is proportional to
displacement
𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥 Where 'k' is a spring constant
(ii) Another due to retarding forces which is proportional to velocity
𝐹2 = −𝑅𝑣 Where 'R' is retarding force constant
Negative sign in equation 1 and 2 shows the direction of restoring and
retarding forces is opposite to that of displacement or motion of the body.
If 'm' if the mass of the vibrating particle, 'x' is it is displacement when it is
moving 'v' [dx/dt] and has acceleration 'a'[d2x/d2t] and according to Newton's
second law the net force applied to a body produces a proportional
acceleration,
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
The total force experienced by the damped oscillator is sum of restoring and
retarding forces
Net force = Restoring force + Retarding force
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑅𝑣

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2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑅 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
+ + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation is known as differential equation of motion of a damped harmonic
oscillator. Where 'b' is called the damping coefficient. 2b give the force due to
resistance in the medium for unit mass per unit velocity
SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
The differential equation representing a damped harmonic motion is given by,
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑘 𝑘
Where 2𝑏 = 𝜔2 = , 𝜔= √
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

To solve the above differential equation let us assume the solution to be,
𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
Differentiating this equation with respect to ‘t’ twice. We get
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐶𝜆 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥
2
= 𝐶𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Substitute the above three assumed solution in differential equation of damped
oscillations, then we get,
𝐶𝜆2𝑒 𝜆𝑡 + 2𝑏𝐶𝜆 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 + 𝜔 2 𝐶 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 0
𝐶 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 (𝜆2 + 2𝑏𝜆 + 𝜔 2 ) = 0
𝐶 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 ≠ 0  𝜆2 + 2𝑏𝜆 + 𝜔 2 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in 𝜆 and hence has 2 roots.

−2𝑏 ± √4𝑏 2 − 4𝜔 2
𝜆=
2

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𝜆 = −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2
This equation is quadratic in lambda and hence has two roots

𝜆1 = −𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2

𝜆2 = −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2
General solution of equation will now be,
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡 Where A and B are constant
2 −𝜔2 )𝑡 2 −𝜔2 )𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 (−𝑏+√𝑏 + 𝐵𝑒 (−𝑏−√𝑏
2−𝜔2 )𝑡 2 −𝜔2 )𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑒 (√𝑏 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑒 (−√𝑏
2−𝜔2 )𝑡 2 −𝜔2 )𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [𝐴𝑒 (√𝑏 + 𝐵𝑒 (−√𝑏 ]
𝑅
Let, ∝= √𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2 𝑏=
2𝑚

𝒙 = 𝒆−𝒃𝒕 (𝑨𝒆∝𝒕 + 𝑩𝒆−∝𝒕 )

Above equation is the solution for damped oscillations equation
𝒙 = 𝒆−𝒃𝒕 (𝑨𝒆∝𝒕 + 𝑩𝒆−∝𝒕 )
Case 1: Over damped (Aperiodic or dead beat motion)
Case 2: Critically damped
Case 3: Under damped (Oscillatory damped)

Case 1: Over damped - for over damping, damping coefficient is greater and
hence it will cause the oscillator to approach zero amplitude more slowly.

𝒃𝟐 > 𝝎𝟐 , ∝= √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 = +𝒗𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚,

For over damped case, ∝ is positive quantity and hence real quantity.

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Case 2: Critically damped - critically damping, damping Coefficient is equal to
zero and hence it will cause the oscillator to approach zero attitude quickly.

𝒃𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐 , ∝= √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 = 𝟎,
For critically damped case, ∝ is zero, hence it’s a transition from over damped
to under damped
Case 3: Under damped - for under damping, damping coefficient is lesser and
hence will cause the oscillator to approach the amplitude faster than critical
damping but oscillates about that zero and the motion is no strictly periodic.

𝒃𝟐 < 𝝎𝟐 , ∝= √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 = −𝒗𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚,

For under damped case, ∝ is negative quantity and hence imaginary quantity.

Sl. Damping Damping Co-efficient ∝= √𝒃𝟐 − 𝝎𝟐 Oscillation Q-factor

No. behaviour
Over ∝= +𝑣𝑒
1. 𝑏2 > 𝜔 2 − 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ Very Slow Low
damped 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Critically ∝= 0
2. 𝑏2 = 𝜔 2 − 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 Quickly medium
damped 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝐷 𝑡𝑜 𝑈𝐷
Under ∝= −𝑣𝑒
3. 𝑏2 < 𝜔 2 − 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑤 Slowly high
damped 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

Video link for damped oscillatory motion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sP1DzhT8Vzo&t=5s
QUALITY FACTOR (Q)

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It is a dimensionless parameter that describes how under them an oscillator or
resonator is and characterizes a resonators bandwidth relative to its Centre
frequency resonant frequency.
A parameter of an oscillating system expressing the relationship between
stored energy and energy dissipation by process is known as quality factor.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑄 = 2𝜋 ( ) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 ( )
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
For a system with low quality factor is said to be overdamped. (Q <1/2)
For a system with high quality factor is said to be underdamped. (Q >1/2)
For a system with intermediate quality factor is said to be critically damped. (Q
= 1/2)

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF QUALITY FACTOR (Q)

 Q factor represents the sharpness of absorption curve.
 Q factor is the measure of sharpness of resonance.
 Q factor measures the amplification factor

FORCED OSCILLATION AND FORCED OSCILLATOR (DRIVEN OSCILLATOR)

FORCED OSCILLATION
Harmonic oscillator oscillates with its natural frequency in a medium like air, air
it oscillation gets damp i.e,. The amplitude decreases exponentially with time to
zero. If the amplitude of oscillation is order be maintained in definitely, energy
must be supplied externally. Oscillations of the body under the action of an
external periodic force are known as forced oscillations and oscillator is called
forced harmonic oscillator or driven harmonic oscillator. The frequency of an
external periodic force applied is not necessarily be the same as that of its
natural frequency. Initially the body tries to have oscillation equal to its natural
frequency, but after sometime initial irregular movements, it ultimately settles
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down to oscillations with the driving frequency i,e,. the frequency of the driving
force.

Forced vibrations can be defined as the vibrations in which the body vibrates
with the frequency other than its natural frequency under action of an external
periodic force.

FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (DRIVEN HARMONIC OSCILLATOR)

Forced harmonic oscillator are acted upon by the following forces
(i) One due to the restoring force displaced spring which is proportional to
displacement
𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥 Where 'k' is a spring constant
(ii) Another due to retarding forces which is proportional to velocity
𝐹2 = −𝑅𝑣 Where 'R' is retarding force constant
Negative sign in equation 1 and 2 shows the direction of restoring and
retarding forces is opposite to that of displacement or motion of the body.
(iii) An external periodic force with frequency p/2π
𝐹3 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡 Where ‘F’ is the maximum value of external force
If 'm' if the mass of the vibrating particle, 'x' is it is displacement when it is
moving 'v' [dx/dt] and has acceleration 'a'[d2x/d2t] and according to Newton's
second law the net force applied to a body produces a proportional
acceleration,

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
The total force experienced by the damped oscillator is sum of restoring and
retarding forces
Net force = Restoring force + Retarding force + External Periodic force
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑅𝑣 + 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑅 + 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑅 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹
+ + 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑅 𝑘 𝐹
Let = 2𝑏, = 𝜔2 , =𝑓
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
+ 𝟐𝒃 + 𝝎𝟐 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The above equation is differential equation of the motion a particle undergoing
forced vibration i,e,. Forced harmonic oscillator. In this case, when the studies
state is set up, the particle vibrates with the frequency of applied force and not
with its own natural frequency
SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
To solve the above differential equation let us assume the solution to be,
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃)
Where 'A' is the steady amplitude of vibration and ‘𝜃′ is the angle by which the
displacement 'x' lags behind the applied force [F sin (pt)]. A and 𝜃 being
arbitrary constants.
Differentiate equation () with respect to’t’ two times we get,
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐴 𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥
= −𝐴 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 2
Substitute the above three assumed solution in differential equation of forced
oscillations, then we get,

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𝟐
𝒅 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
+ 𝟐𝒃 + 𝝎𝟐 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

−𝐴 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) + 2𝑏 𝐴 𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝜔 2 𝐴 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) = 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡

−𝐴 𝑝2 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) + 2𝑏 𝐴 𝑝 cos(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝜔 2 𝐴 sin(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃)
= 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛{(𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) + 𝜃}
*sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B , use this on LHS, rearranging the common
terms of co eff of sin (pt-θ) and cos (pt-θ) on RHS we get,
𝑨( 𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜽) + 𝟐𝑨𝒃𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜽)
= 𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜽) + 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒑𝒕 − 𝜽)
If this relation holds good for all values of 't', then the coefficients of
sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) and cos (𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) terms on both the sides of equation must be
equal i,e,. We can compare coefficients of sin (𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) and cos (𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃) on
both the sides, we get
𝑨( 𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 ) = 𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝟐𝑨𝒃𝒑 = 𝒇𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Form above two equations we get the value of ‘A’ and ‘θ’, by squaring and
adding above two equations we get ‘A’ and by dividing above two equations
we get ‘θ’
Squaring and adding above two equations we get
𝐴2 ( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 = 𝑓 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
4𝐴2 𝑏 2 𝑝2 = 𝑓 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝐴2 ( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝐴2 𝑏 2𝑝2 = 𝑓 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑓 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝐴2 {( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2𝑝2 } = 𝑓 2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃}
𝐴2 {( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2𝑝2 } = 𝑓 2

2
𝑓2
𝐴 =
{( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2𝑝2 }
𝒇
𝑨 =
√( 𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐
Above equation give the amplitude of the forced vibrations
Dividing the equation by we get
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2𝐴𝑏𝑝 𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
=
𝐴( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 ) 𝑓 cos 𝜃
2𝑏𝑝
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( 𝟐 )
𝝎 − 𝒑𝟐
Above equation gives the phase of the forced vibrations.
Depending upon the relative values of p and omega the following cases are
possible.

Case 1: 𝒑 ≪ 𝝎 When driving frequency is lesser than the natural frequency

In this case amplitude of vibration is given by,
𝑓
𝐴 =
√( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2
𝒇
𝑨= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝎𝟐
2𝑏𝑝
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 2 )
𝜔 − 𝑝2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (0) = 0
𝜽=𝟎
This shows that the amplitude of vibration is independent of frequency of force.
This amplitude depends upon the magnitude of the applied force and force
constant ‘k’.
force and displacement are always in phase when 𝒑 ≪ 𝝎.
Case 2: 𝒑 = 𝝎 When driving frequency is equal to natural frequency
In this case, the amplitude of vibration is given by,
𝑓
𝐴 =
√( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2
𝒇 𝑭
𝑨 = =
𝟐𝒃𝝎 𝑹𝝎

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2𝑏𝑝
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 2 )
𝜔 − 𝑝2
𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (∞) =
2
𝝅
𝜽=
𝟐
Thus, the amplitude of vibration is governed by damping and for small damping
forces, the amplitude of vibration will be quite large.
Displacement lags behind the force by a phase π/2 when 𝒑 = 𝝎
Case 3: 𝒑 ≫ 𝝎 When the driving frequency is greater than the natural
frequency
In this case the amplitude of vibration is given by,
𝑓
𝐴 =
√( 𝜔 2 − 𝑝2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2
𝑝 ≫ 𝜔 signifies ‘b’ is very small and hence can be neglected
𝒇 𝑭
𝑨= =
𝒑𝟐 𝒎𝒑𝟐
2𝑏𝑝
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 2 )
𝜔 − 𝑝2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (−0) = 𝜋
𝜽=𝝅
Thus in this case the amplitude A goes on decreasing and phase difference
tends towards π when 𝒑 ≫ 𝝎

Sl
CONDITION AMPLITUDE PHASE INFERENCE
No.
Amplitude is constant, force and
𝑓
1 𝑝≪𝜔 𝐴 = 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜃=0 displacement are always in phase.
𝜔
𝑓 𝐹 𝜋 Displacement lags behind the force by a
2 𝑝=𝜔 𝐴 = = 𝜃=
2𝑏𝜔 𝑅𝜔 2 phase π/2 when
𝑓 𝐹 amplitude A goes on decreasing and
3 𝑝≫𝜔 𝐴= 2= 𝜃=𝜋
𝑝 𝑚𝑝2 phase difference tends towards π

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VIDEO DEMONSTRATIONS OF FORCED OSCILLATIONS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sP1DzhT8Vzo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jewSVEBkI_s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuLJZylmJB4

RESONANCE
The increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electrical or mechanical or optical
system exposed to a periodic force frequency is equal to or very close the
natural and damped frequency of the system is known as resonance.
The phenomenon of making a body vibrates with its natural frequency under
the influence of another vibrating body with the same frequency is called
resonance.
Example: Tuning of radio, musical instruments, shattering of a crystal wine
glass when exposed to musical tone of right pitch etc.,

CONDITIONS OF AMPLITUDE OF RESONANCE

In case of forced vibrations, we have amplitude ‘A’ and phase 'θ’ given by
𝒇
𝑨 =
√( 𝝎𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝒃𝟐 𝒑𝟐
𝟐𝒃𝒑
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( 𝟐 )
𝝎 − 𝒑𝟐
The above expressions shows that amplitude varies with frequency of the force
'p'. For a particular value of 'p' the amplitude becomes maximum. This
phenomenon is known as amplitude of resonance.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
When the forced vibration is same as the natural frequency of a vibrating
system resonance occurs and this is condition for resonance.

TYPES OF RESONANCE:
1. Mechanical resonance
2. Acoustics resonance
3. Electrical resonance
4. Optical resonance
5. Orbital resonance
6. Atomic, particle and Molecular resonance

Maximum amplitude is given by ‘A’ when 𝑝 = 𝜔,

𝒇
𝑨 =
𝟐𝒃𝒑

Where, f=F/m, F – maximum value of external preriodic force

m – mass of the vibrating body
p/2π=f – frequency of the external periodic force
b- damping co-efficient

SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE
Frequency response is the measure of amplitude of an oscillation as a function
of frequency. Sharpness of resonance is defined by the quality factor which is
related to how quickly the energy of the oscillating system decays.
When the amplitude at resonance falls rapidly as the frequency of the applied
force is changed slightly from its resonant value, the resonance is said to be
sharp

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When the amplitude at resonance Falls gradually as the frequency of the
applied force is changed slightly from its resonant value, the resonance is said
to be flat.

Graphical representations of SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dI-W0s23msU
check video at 40s to 2.06s

EFFECT OF DAMPING ON SHARPNESS OF

RESONANCE

(i) When there is no damping b=0, the

amplitude at resonance becomes infinity.

Page 25 of 37
ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
(ii) When damping is small, the amplitude is sufficiently large but falls off
rapidly as a frequency of applied force become slightly different from the
natural frequency of the body.
(iii) When damping is large, completed at resonance decreases, but falls off
gradually. Even when the frequency of the applied force is little different from
the natural frequency of the body the amplitude is nearly same.

When damping is small, resonance is sharp. When damping is large, resonance

is flat. Therefore damping coefficient is inversely proportional to sharpness of
the resonance.
Measure sharpness of resonance is quality factor –Q (which measures the
sharpness of tuning). Higher the Q-factor for a given resonant frequency,
smaller is the bandwidth and lower is the damping co-efficient and vice versa.

HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR
A resonator is a device to analyse a complex
note of sound i,e,. To determine what
particular frequency or present in the given
note. Helmholtz resonator is a device which is
used to identify the various frequencies or
music pictures present in the music and other
complex sounds. This device was created by
German physician at a physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz.
The Helmholtz resonator is an acoustic system analogous to a simple harmonic
oscillator. It consists of a rigid enclosure of volume V communicating with
external media through a narrow opening of radius r and length l.
(i) The gas in the neck moves as a unit and provides the mass element to
the system.
(ii) The pressure within the cavity changes with the influx and out flux of
gas through the opening as it is alternatively compress and expanded
and thus provides stiffness element
(iii) The resistance element is rendered by the radiation of sound at the
opening which leads to dissipation of acoustic energy in the
surrounding medium.
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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22

Note that it is possible to substitute a complex of acoustic system by a

systematic circuit of its analogous electrical system. Also known solution of the
analogous electrical system could be used to discuss solution of the acoustical
system.
So the Helmholtz resonator can be safely represented by a series LCR circuit one
could also resolve it in terms of the acoustics analogues R, M, C

From the above comparison it's evident that we can even have equivalent
mechanical, electrical and acoustical expressions for resonant frequency and
Q-factor.

An interesting type of acoustic resonance - known as the Helmholtz resonance

is present and is operative in many musical instruments (e.g. the ocarina, the
flute, the f-hole(s) of violin/viola/cello, the sound hole of an acoustic guitar,
human whistling etc.,).

The underlying theory of a Helmholtz resonator is quite simple – it is related to

the 1-D mass-spring system, which has a natural resonance frequency
𝐶 𝐴
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑉𝐿
Where, f – natural frequency of the Helmholtz resonator,

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C – is the speed of sound in air approx.. 340m/s
A – Surface/ cross sectional area of the neck hole
V – Volume of air in the resonator body
L – Length of the neck (or port or hole)

A familiar example of a Helmholtz resonator is a simple bottle – with an

opening in it. The Helmholtz resonance of an open bottle can be excited by
placing the mouth of the bottle against one’s lips and simply exhaling (or gently
blowing) across the mouth of the bottle.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoEyIJx3uM0

APPLICATION OF HELMHOLTZ RESONANCE

1. Used in internal combustion engines, subwoofers of acoustics.
2. Motorcycle and car exhausts to alter the sound of the exhaust note.
3. Architectural acoustics to reduce the undesirable low frequency sound.
4. Build acoustic liners for reducing the noise of aircraft engines.

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REFRENCES
1. Oscillations And Waves by Paul A. Tipler
2. Waves and Oscillations by N Subrahmanyam and Brij Lal
3. Waves and Oscillations. A Prelude to Quantum Mechanics.
4. Oscillations and Waves in Linear and Nonlinear Systems by Rabinovich.
5. The Physics of Vibrations and Waves, 5th edition. The physics of
vibrations and waves /. Wiley.

MODULE 1

CHAPTER 2 - SHOCK WAVES

ACOUSTICS: Acoustics is the science of sound and deals with the origin
propagation and auditory sensation of sound.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
SOUND WAVES: Sound is a form of energy produced by some vibrating body
which gives rise to mechanical waves. These mechanical waves propagate in a
in the form of series of compressions and rarefactions of a molecules leading to
the sensation of hearing by modulating the normal atmospheric pressure. Thus,
a sound wave is one complete cycle of pressure variation.

Based on frequency sound waves can be distinguished as follows,

1. Infrasound: Sound waves whose frequency is less than 20 Hertz.
2. Audible sound: Sound waves whose frequency lies between 20 to 20 kilo
Hertz.
3. Ultrasound sound waves whose frequency is greater than 20 kilo Hertz.

MACH NUMBER (M)

Mach number is a unit that determines the magnitude of many of the
compressible effects. It is named after the Austrian scientist Ernst Mach and is
denoted by M.
Mach number is defined as the ratio of the speed of the object(v o) to the speed
of sound (vs) in the given medium.
𝑣𝑜
𝑀=
𝑣𝑠
Where, M is Mach number
Vo - speed the object
Vs - speed of sound in the medium

MACH ANGLE

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Angle made by the common tangent of the expanding sound waves with the
axis of cone (which is half angle of cone) is called Mach angle.

𝑣𝑠 𝑡 𝑣𝑠 1
sin 𝜃 = = =
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 𝑣𝑜 𝑀
1
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1
𝑀

Based on Mach number, mechanical waves can be distinguished as follows

(i) Subsonic: Mach number is less than 1.

(ii) Transonic: Mach number is approximately equal to 1.
(iii) Supersonic: Mach number is between 1.3 to 5.
(iv) Hypersonic: Mach number is greater than 5.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Zu5SGllmwc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=95sQcSulRFM

SHOCKWAVE
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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22

Shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance characterized by an abrupt,

nearly discontinuous change in pressure, temperature and density of the
medium.
In aerodynamics a shock wave is defined as a surface which manifests as a
discontinuity in a fluid medium and which is propagating with a Supersonic
speed a.

TYPES OF SHOCK WAVES

(i) Normal shock waves: At an angle of 90 degree perpendicular to the shock

medium flow direction.
(ii) Oblique shock waves: At an angle to the direction of flow
(iii) Bow/Curved Shockwaves: Occurs upstream of the friend of a blunt object
with the upstream velocity exceeds Mach number 1.

SONIC BOOM

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Sound associated with the shock waves created by an object travelling to a
faster than the speed of sound. Sonic boom is thunder like noise a person on
the ground ears when an aircraft or other type of aerospace vehicles flies
overhead faster than the speed of sound or Supersonic.
METHODS OF CREATING SHOCK WAVES IN THE LABORATORY
1. Using a Reddy tube.
2. Detonation
3. Very high pressure gas cylinder
4. Combustion
5. Using small charge of explosives
CONTROL VOLUME
Control volume is defined as the imaginary two dimensional containing shock
wave front to study shock waves. Pressure, volume, density and temperature
changes within the control volume are large and that cannot be measured.

CONSERVATION OF MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY

The conservation laws of momentum and energy are the three fundamental
laws of classical physics these laws can be applied to a closed system a closed
system is a system that does not exchange any matter with the outside and is
not acted upon by outside forces.

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1. Law of conservation of mass (matter): It states that total mass of any
isolated system remains constant and is independent of any physical and
chemical changes that occur within the system.
Mathematically, 𝛒𝐯=𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 or
∴ ρ1v1 =ρ2 v2, Where ρ1, ρ2 densities & v1 ,v2 velocities.

2. Law of conservation of momentum: It states that in any closed system total

Momentum always remains constant.
Mathematically, 𝐏+𝛒𝐯𝟐 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 or P1+ρ1v12=P2+ρ2v22
Where P1, P2 pressures, v1, v2 velocities and ρ1, ρ2densities.

3. Law of conservation of energy: It states that the total energy of a closed

system always remains constant and is independent of any changes that could
occur within the system.
Mathematically, 𝐡+𝐯𝟐𝟐 =𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 or h𝟏+v122=h2+v222
Where h1, h2 enthalpies and v1, v2 velocities.

APPLICATION OF SHOCK WAVES.

1. Shock waves are used to disintegrate kidney stones.
2. They are used to extract oil in sandalwood
3. Preservative impregnation in bamboo using vertical shock waves.
4. They are used to treat wood to process pencil.
5. They are used in targeted drug delivery.
6. They are used in biological application, by passing the shockwave of proper
strength, DNA can be pushed inside the cell without affecting its functionality.
7. They enabled the study of high temperature gas dynamics.
8. Laser application of shocks in Geology.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
SHOCK TUBE
The shock tube is an excellent tool for studying the nature of shock wave
propagation (high velocity compressible gas) and high temperature
phenomenon in gases.

REDDY SHOCK TUBE

Reddy shock tube is a hand operated tube capable of generating shock waves.
It can produce shock waves with Mach numbers exceeding 1.5 bye simple hand
operation.
Principle: The Reddy shock tube operates on the principle of free Piston driven
shock tube (FPST)
Construction: Reddy shock tube consists of a long cylindrical Stainless Steel
Tube of length 1m and diameter of 30mm. The tube is equally divided into two
sections. One is called the driver section which maintained at high pressure and
other at a lower pressure known as the driven section. A diaphragm made of
aluminium or or paper or mylar or plastic of thickness 0.01mm separates the
two sections as shown in the figure.

A plastic piston is fitted with the plunger at the far end of the driver section for
manual operation. The fire and the driven section is closed. A digital pressure
gauge is fixed in the driver section near the diaphragm. Two piece electric
pressure sensor S1 and S2 are fixed 70mm apart near the close end of the tube.
The driver section is filled with gas known as the driver gas and the gas in the
driven section is called driven gas.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
Working: Initially at the starter condition the driver section is uniform at an
elevated pressure while the driven section is at a lower pressure. Is pushed hard
at high speed into the driver tube the driver gas gets compressed thereby heat
is generated due to adiabatic compression. The diaphragm rupture due to the
high pressure heated driver resulting in creating and driving a strong shock
wave into the driven section.
The shockwave instantaneously raises the temperature and pressure of the
driven gas (test gas). The shock wave is reflected from the downstream end,
The shocked test gas then undergoes for the compression which results in
increasing the value of pressure (exceeding a few hundreds of atmosphere) and
temperature (exceeding 10,000K). This state of system remains at the
downstream end an expansion wave is reflected from the upstream end of the
driver tube arise and utilizes the compression partially.
The shocked gas can be used for material processing and also to synthesise
new materials. The value of pressure rise caused by the primary shock waves
and reflected shock wave or sent by the piezoelectric sensor S1 and S2 and they
are recorded in a digital Cathode ray oscilloscope.

CHARACTERISTICS OF REDDY SHOCK TUBE

1. Tube operate on the principle of free piston-driven shock tube (FPST).

2. It can produce shock Mac numbers exceeding 1.5 bye simple hand operation.
3. It can produce shock waves with pressures exceeding few hundreds of
atmosphere and temperature exceeding 10,000K, which can be used for
material processing and also to synthesize new materials.
4. The over pressures produced at the open end of the 1mm diameter shock
tube suitable for studying the blast induced traumatic brain injuries.
5. It can produce shock Mach number close to 2 2 by choosing a diaphragm
thickness such that it ruptures when the piston is the position X/L=0.1, where X
is the distance piston moved and L is the length of the tube.

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS NP NOTES / 18PHY12/22
REFRENCES
1. Shock waves made simple by C S Kumar, Takayama, K P J Reddy
2. Physics of Shock waves by Zel'dovich & Raizer
3. Shock waves by William M Isbell

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