MATH1007 – Notes — By Dr.

Hua

Contents
Precalculus Review 3

Chapter 1 – Functions 7
1.1 Functions and their graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Combining Functions: Shifting and scaling func-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3: Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Inverse functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chapter 2 – Limits and Continuity 19

2.1 Rates of change and tangent lines to curves . . 19
2.2 Limit of a Function and limit laws . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 One-sided limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Limits involving infinity; Asymptotes of graphs 25
Chapter 3. Derivatives 28
3.1 Tangent lines and the derivative at a point . . . 28
3.2 The derivative as a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Differentiation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 The derivative as a rate of change . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Derivatives of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . 36
3.6 The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 Implicit differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Loga-
rithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.9 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.11 Linearization and differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

1
Chapter 4. Applications of Derivatives 43
4.1 Extreme values of functions on Closed Intervals 43
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Monotonic functions and the first derivative
test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 Concavity and curve sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rule . . . 51
4.8 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 5. Integrals 54
5.1- 5.2 Area, Sigma notation and limits of finite
sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . 56
5.6 Area Between Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2
 Precalculus Review

1. Real numbers and intervals

Interval Notation Set Notation
[a, b] {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}
(a, b) {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
[a, b) {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}
(a, b] {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}
(a, +∞) {x ∈ R : x > a}
[a, +∞) {x ∈ R : x ≥ a}
(−∞, b) {x ∈ R : x < b}
(−∞, b] {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}
(−∞, +∞) R
2. Exponents and radicals
Properties of exponents:
ˆ x0 = 1, x ̸= 0.

ˆ x−n = 1
xn
, x ̸= 0.
√ √
ˆ x1/n = n
x, xm/n = n
xm .

ˆ xm xn = xm+n , xm /xn = xm−n .

ˆ (xm )n = xmn .

ˆ xn y n = (xy)n .
For Example,

x3/2 + 5x2
= x(1 + 5x1/2 ).
x1/2
3. Factoring Polynomials
Polynomial P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 has a zero at x = a IFF
P (a) = 0
IFF
P (x) = (x − a)Q(x).
a0
P (x) = 0 has a rational root x = a IFF a is a factor of .
an

3
Example 1. Factor P (x) = 3x3 − 5x2 + 8x − 4.
−4
Solution: Factors of : ±1, ±2, ±4, ± 13 , ± 23 , ± 34 .
3
Note that P (2/3) = 0. A factor is 3x − 2.

P (x) = (3x − 2)(x2 − x + 2).

ˆ a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b).

ˆ a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

ˆ a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ).

ˆ xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + xn−3 y 2 + · · · + x2 y n−3 + xy n−2 + y n−1 ).

ˆ (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2 .

ˆ (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

ˆ (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 .

Example 2. Factor f (x) = x4 + x2 + 1.

Solution:
x4 + x2 + 1 = x4 + 2x2 + 1 − x2
= (x2 + 1)2 − x2
= (x2 + 1 − x)(x2 + 1 + x).

Example 3. x2 − 8x − 9 = (x − 9)(x + 1).

4. Solving inequalities

Example 4. Solve the inequality

−2x − 3 ≤ −13.

4
 Solution: We have

−2x − 3 ≤ −13 ⇒ −2x ≤ −13 + 3 ⇒ −2x ≤ −10.

The next step would be to divide both sides by −2. Since −2 < 0, the sense of the inequality
is inverted, and so
−10
−2x ≤ −10 ⇒ x ≥ ⇒ x ≥ 5.
−2

Example 5. Solve the inequality

x2 + 2x − 35 < 0.

Solution: Observe that x2 + 2x − 35 = (x − 5)(x + 7), which vanishes when x = −7

or when x = 5. Now we construct the table:

x∈ (−∞, −7) (−7, 5) (5, +∞)

x+7 − + +
x−5 − − +
(x + 7)(x − 5) + − +

On the last row, the sign of the product (x + 7)(x − 5) is determined by the sign of each of
the factors x + 7 and x − 5.
From the sign diagram above we see that

{x ∈ R : x2 + 2x − 35 < 0} = (−7, 5).

Notice that we exclude both x = −7 and x = 5 in the set, as (x + 7)(x − 5) vanishes there.

5. Absolute Values

Definition 1. Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x—denoted by |x|—is defined by

(
−x if x < 0,
|x| =
x if x ≥ 0.

Example 6. Let x > 10. Then |3 − |5 − x|| = |3 − (x − 5)| = |8 − x|.

ˆ |x| ≤ t ⇐⇒ −t ≤ x ≤ t.

5
 ˆ |x| ≥ t ⇐⇒ x ≥ t or x ≤ −t.

ˆ Triangle Inequality: Let a, b be real numbers. Then |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

Example 7. Solve the inequality |2x − 1| ≤ 1.

Solution:

|2x − 1| ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ −1 ≤ 2x − 1 ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ 0 ≤ 2x ≤ 2 ⇐⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ x ∈ [0, 1] .

The solution set is the interval [0, 1].

6. Rationalizing denominator or numerator

√ √
ˆ If the denominator is a, then multiply both top and bottom by a .
√ √ √ √
ˆ If the denominator is a ± b, then multiply both top and bottom by a ∓ b.

Example 8. Rationalize the denominator: √ x .

x+4−2

Solution:
√ √
x x( x + 4 + 2) x( x + 4 + 2) √
√ = √ √ = = x + 4 + 2.
x+4−2 ( x + 4 − 2)( x + 4 + 2) x

6
 Chapter 1 – Functions

1.1 Functions and their graphs

Function: A function y = f (x) from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique
element f (x) ∈ Y to each element x ∈ D. (x is called independent variable, y is called
dependent variable).
ˆ Domain of the function y = f (x): D = The set of all values of the independent variable
x for which the function is defined.

ˆ Range of the function: R = The set of all values of f (x) as x varies throughout D.

Four ways to represent functions:

ˆ Verbally: by a description in words;

ˆ numerically: by a table of values;

ˆ visually: by a graph {(x, f (x))|x ∈ D};

ˆ algebraically: by an explicit formula.

x2
Example: f (x) = x2 −3x+2 is a function, D = {x ̸= 1, 2}.
Example: f (x) = ±x2 is not a function.
Some special functions:

ˆ Linear function: y = f (x) = mx + b.

ˆ Increasing function f (x): f (x) increases as x increases.

ˆ Decreasing function f (x): f (x) decreases as x increases.

(
2x, x ≤ 0;
ˆ Piecewise defined functions: f (x) =
3x, x > 0.

ˆ Odd functions: f (−x) = −f (x); even functions: f (−x) = f (x).

7
ˆ Algebraic function: functions using algebraic operations (+, -, ×, ÷ and taking roots)
starting with polynomials. E.g.,

– Power function: f (x) = kxp , where k ̸= 0 and p are constants.

Domain of f (x) = x1/2 : {x ≥ 0};
Domain of f (x) = x−1/2 : {x > 0};
Domain of f (x) = x−1/3 : {x ̸= 0}.
– Polynomials P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , where n is a positive integer
(which is called the degree of P (x)).
p(x)
– Rational function: f (x) = q(x)
. Domain q(x) ̸= 0.
√
– x−1
– Absolute value: (
−x if x < 0,
|x| =
x if x ≥ 0.

ˆ Transcendental functions (non-algebraic):

– trig functions: f (x) = sin x, cos x, ...

– exponential functions: f (x) = ax , a > 0, a ̸= 1.
– logarithmic functions: f (x) = loga x, a > 0, a ̸= 1.

8
 1.2 Combining Functions: Shifting and scaling
functions

New Functions:
ˆ Vertical stretch by a factor of c: f (x) → cf (x), c > 1;

ˆ Vertical compress by a factor of 1/c: f (x) → cf (x), 0 < c < 1;

ˆ Horizontal stretch by a factor of 1/c: f (x) → f (cx), 0 < c < 1;

ˆ Horizontal compress by a factor of c: f (x) → f (cx), c > 1;

ˆ Reflection about x-axis: f (x) → −f (x);

ˆ Reflection about y-axis: f (x) → f (−x);

ˆ Vertical shift up (or down) by k: f (x) → f (x) + k, k > 0 (or k < 0);

ˆ Horizontal shift to the right (or left) by h: f (x) → f (x − h), h > 0 (or h < 0);

ˆ Combinations of functions, e.g., f (x)g(x);

ˆ Composite function f (g(x)) or f ◦g(x). The domain of f ◦g(x) is the set of all x ∈ D(g)
such that g(x) ∈ D(f ).
√
Example 9. Let f (x) = 2x − 4. Find the new function after shifting downward by 2
units, then shifting left by 3 units, then compressing vertically by 4 units.
p
Solution: 14 ( 2(x + 3) − 4 − 2).

√ √
Example 10. Let f (x) = 2x − 4, g(x) = 3 − 2x.
p √
Then f (g(x)) = 2 3 − 2x − 4 with
p D(f√ ◦ g) = {x ≤ −0.5} (the solution of 3 − 2x ≥ 0
√
and 2 3 − 2x − 4 ≥ 0). g(f (x)) = 3 − 2 2x − 4, D(g ◦ f ) = {2 ≤ x ≤ 3.125} (the
√
solution of 2x − 4 ≥ 0 and 3 − 2 2x − 4 ≥ 0).

9
 1.3: Trigonometric functions
t
Radian ⇆ Degree: t degree = 180
π.
Consider a right triangle:
opposite adjacent sin t
sin t = , cos t = , tan t = ,
hypothenuse hypothenuse cos t
1 1 1
sec t = , csc t = , cot t = .
cos t sin t tan t
Basic relations:

sin(θ + π2 ) = + cos θ sin(θ + π) = − sin θ sin(π − θ) = sin θ sin(2π − θ) = − sin θ

π
cos(θ + 2 ) = − sin θ cos(θ + π) = − cos θ cos(π − θ) = − cos θ cos(2π − θ) = cos θ
π
tan(θ + 2 ) = − cot θ tan(θ + π) = + tan θ tan(π − θ) = − tan θ tan(2π − θ) = − tan θ
cot(θ + π2 ) = − tan θ cot(θ + π) = + cot θ cot(π − θ) = − cot θ cot(2π − θ) = − cot θ
sec(θ + π2 ) = − csc θ sec(θ + π) = − sec θ sec(π − θ) = − sec θ sec(2π − θ) = sec θ
π
csc(θ + 2 ) = + sec θ csc(θ + π) = − csc θ csc(π − θ) = csc θ csc(2π − θ) = − csc θ

Pythagorean trigonometric identity: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.

t 0 π6 π π π
√4 √3 2
2 3
Special values: sin t 0 12 1
√ √2 2
cos t 1 23 22 12 0
Addition formulas:
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y,
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y.
Double-angle formulas:

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x.

Half-angle formula.
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = , cos2 x = .
2 2
Periods: sin x and cos x have period 2π, tan x and cot x have period π.
Graphs.

10
 sin x
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi

cos x
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 pi/2 pi 3pi/2 2pi

tan x
6

−2

−4

−6
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

Example 11. Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] such that sin2 x − 3 cos2 x = 0.
π 2π 4π 5π
Solution: 3
, 3, 3, 3.

Example 12. Find cos x where x ∈ [ π2 , 2π] such that sin x = 0.8.

Solution: cos x = −0.6

Example 13. Find sin x and cos x where x ∈ [ 3π

2
, 2π] such that tan x = − 51 .

11
 y −1
Solution: tan x = x
= 5
.

π
Example 14. Evaluate sin 12 .
π 4π 3π
Solution: 12
= 12
− 12
.

Special inequalities:

−|x| ≤ sin x ≤ |x|, −|x| ≤ 1 − cos x ≤ |x|.

12
 1.5 Exponential functions

We say that f (x) = ax is an exponential function with base a, a > 0, a ̸= 1. When

a = e = 2.71828..., ex is called the natural exponential function.
Laws of exponents:

ax+y = ax ay , ax−y = ax /ay , (ax )y = axy , ax bx = (ab)x .

General Definition: We say that P (t) is an exponential function of t with base a if

P (t) = P0 at , a > 0, a ̸= 1,

where P0 is the initial quantity.

ˆ Exponential growth: a > 1;

ˆ Exponential decay: 0 < a < 1.

ˆ a = P (t + 1)/P (t).
.
If we use base e = 2.71828, then we have Natural Exponential Function:

P (t) = P0 at = P0 ekt , a = ek ,

ˆ Exponential growth: k > 0;

ˆ Exponential decay: k < 0.

ˆ k is the continuous growing or decaying rate.

Special cases:

ˆ Half-life (exponential decay): The time required for the quantity to be reduced to half.
Let H be the half-life, then
1 1
P (t + H) = P (t) ⇒ P (t) = P0 ( )t/H .
2 2

ˆ Doubling-time (exponential growth): The time required for the quantity to be doubled.
Let D be the doubling time, then

P (t + D) = 2P (t) ⇒ P (t) = P0 (2)t/D .

13
Example 15. A bacterial culture starts with 500 bacteria and doubles in size every hour.
a) How many are there after t hours?
b) How many are there after 10 minutes?

Solution: a) Let P (t) be the number after t hours. Then P (0) = 500, P (t+1) = 2P (t).
D = 1.
P (t) = (500)2t/1 = (500)2t .
b) P (10/60) = (500)210/60 = (500)21/6 .

Example 16. Sketch the graph of y = 2x + 5.

Example 17. Sketch the graph of y = 2−x + 5.

Example 18. Solve 4x − 9(2x ) + 8 = 0.

Solution: Let y = 2x , then y 2 − 9y + 8 = 0, y = 1, 8, x = 0, 3.

Application in compounded interest. Let A represent the amount of money after a

certain amount of time, P represent the principle or the amount of money you start with
(Present value), r represent the interest rate, t represent the amount of time in years, n
represent the number of times per year. Then

ˆ Compounded n times per year:

 r nt
A=P 1+ ,
n

ˆ Compounded continuously:
A = P ert .

Example 19. Suppose $12000 is put into an account that pays 2.4% annually. How much
will be in the account after 10 years?
a) compounded continuously.
b) compounded quarterly. What is the effective rate?

Solution: a)
A = P ert = 12000e0.024(10) = 12000e0.24 .
b)
 4(10)
r nt
 0.024
A=P 1+ = 12000 1 + = 12000 (1.006)40 .
n 4

14
 1.6 Inverse functions and Logarithms

One-to-one function: y = f (x) is 1-1 ⇔ for each y ∈ R, there is only one x ∈ D. Hori-
zontal line test can be used to check this ⇔ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) for any x1 ̸= x2 in D.

Method to test one-to-one: Horizontal line test.

√
Example 20. f (x) = x2 is not 1-1; g(x) = x is 1-1.
3x+2
Example 21. Let f (x) = 5x−4
. Find the domain, and show that the function is 1:1 in the
domain.

Inverse function: If f is one-to-one, we define the inverse y = f −1 (x) of y = f (x) as:

f −1 (b) = a if f (a) = b.

ˆ The graph of f −1 and the graph of f are symmetric about the line y = x.

ˆ Cancelation: f (f −1 (y)) = y.

ˆ f −1 (f (x)) = x

ˆ D(f ) = R(f −1 ), R(f ) = D(f −1 ).

Example 22. let f (x) = 3x+2

5x−4
, find the inverse f −1 (x).

Solution:
Strategy:
1) Write y = 3x+2
5x−4
;
3y+2
2) Switch x and y: x = 5y−4 ;
4x+2
3) Isolate y: y = 5x−3 ;
4) Answer: y = f −1 (x) = 4x+2
5x−3
.

y = ax inversef unction y = loga x,

−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = ex inversef unction y = loge x = ln x,
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
x
y = 10 inversef unction y = log10 x = log x.
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
Definition: y = loga x is called logarithmic function with the base a. Domain = {x > 0}.
Properties: Let B, C > 0. Then

15
 1. loga (BC) = loga B + loga C,

2. loga ( B
C
) = loga B − loga C,

3. loga (B n ) = n loga B,

4. loga (ax ) = x, loga a = 1,

5. aloga B = B,

6. loga 1 = 0.
logc b
7. Change of base: loga b = logc a
.

Proof. Let x = loga b. Then ax = b ⇒ logc ax = logc b ⇒ x logc a = logc b.

Example 23. Convert ax to base e.

ax = ex ln a .

Example 24. Simplify log3 18 − log3 2.

Example 25. Solve for x:

(i) 32x−1 = 4, (ii) ln[ln(2x + 1)] = 1, (iii) log3 x + log3 (x − 8) = 2.

Example 26. Sketch y = ln(x + 1) − 2.

Example 27. Predict the population in 2010, if

Year Population
2000 10
2003 10.5

Solution: Let P (t) be the population after t years. t = 0 ⇔ 2000, P (0) = P0 =

10, P (3) = 10.5.
.
P (t) = P0 at , ⇒ P (t) = 10at , ⇒ P (3) = 10a3 = 10.5, ⇒ a = 1.0164, ⇒ P (t) = 10(1.0164)t .

P (10) = 10(1.0164)10 = 11.76648.

INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS:

16
 Inverse Trig Function Restriction (Range) Meaning
−1
t = arcsin x or t = sin (x) − π2 ≤ t ≤ π2 sin t = x
t = arccos x or t = cos−1 (x) 0≤t≤π cos t = x
t = arctan x or t = tan−1 (x) − π2 < t < π2 tan t = x

In words: The t = arcsin x is an angle (in radians!) whose sin is x.

Graphs of the inverse functions: Using the symmetry line y = x.
arcsin x
2

1.5

0.5

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

arccos x
3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

arctan x
1.5

0.5

−0.5

−1

−1.5
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10

17
Example 28. Find the exact values of the following expressions: (a) arcsin(1) (b) arctan(−1)
√ √
(c) tan−1 ( 3) (d)sin[cos−1 ( 23 )]

Example 29. Simplify the following expression:

x
tan arcsin .
a
Solution: Draw a right triangle with hypothenuse a and one side x. Let θ be the
opposite angle of x. Then
x x
tan arcsin = tan θ = √ .
a a − x2
2

Example 30. Find the inverse of f (x) = sin(2e3x ).

Solution: Let y = sin(2e3x ). Switch x and y,

1
x = sin(2e3y ), ⇒ sin−1 x = 2e3y , ⇒ ln( sin−1 x) = 3y, ⇒
2
1 1 1 1
y= ln( sin−1 x), ⇒ f −1 (x) = ln( sin−1 x).
3 2 3 2

18
 Chapter 2 – Limits and Continuity

2.1 Rates of change and tangent lines to curves

The average rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is

∆y y2 − y1 f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )

= = = , h ̸= 0.
∆x x2 − x1 x2 − x1 h
Geometrically, it is the slope of the secant through two points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ).

Instantaneous rates of change and tangent lines: What is a tangent line at point P
on a curve? We chose another point Q on the curve. The line P Q is called a secant line.
When Q tends to P, the secant PQ will tends to a line, which is called a the tangent line of
the curve at P.

Example 31. Estimate the slope of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point
(2, 4).

Solution:
x2 − 4
m= .
x−2
x m
2.1 4.1
2.01 4.01
2.001 4.001
1.9 3.9
1.99 3.99
1.999 3.999

19
 2.2 Limit of a Function and limit laws
Definition 2. We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say ”as x approaches a, the limit of f (x) is L.” If L is a finite number, we say that the
limit exists, otherwise, the limit does not exist.
Example. Estimate the limit of
x2 − 1
lim .
x→1 x − 1

Example. Estimate the limit of

sin x
lim .
x→0 x
sin x
x x
1 0.84147098
0.1 0.99833417
0.01 0.99998333
0.001 0.99999983

Properties: Suppose that lim f (x) ∃ and lim g(x) ∃.

x→a x→a

ˆ lim P (x) = P (a), P (x) is a polynomial.

x→a

ˆ lim (cf (x) ± dg(x)) = c lim f (x) ± d lim g(x), c, d are constants.
x→a x→a x→a

ˆ lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

ˆ lim = x→a
, if lim g(x) ̸= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a

ˆ lim [f (x)]n = [lim f (x)]n .

x→a x→a
q
ˆ lim n f (x) = n lim f (x). When n is even, we assume that lim f (x) ̸= 0.
p
x→a x→a x→a

Example 32.
2 2 3x4 + 8x − 2 3(1)4 + 8(1) − 2
lim (x − 3) = 1 − 3 = −2, lim = = −9.
x→1 x→1 x−2 1−2

20
Special case:
f (x)
lim where g(a) = 0.
x→a g(x)

f (x)
ˆ If f (a) ̸= 0, then limx→a g(x)
does not exist.
f (x)
ˆ If f (a) = 0, then simplify g(x)
first, then study the limit.

Example 33.
3x4 + 8x − 2 x−2
lim ∄, lim = 1.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x − 2

Example 34.

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4,
x→2 x − 2 x→2
2
(h + 1) − 1 h(h + 2)
lim = lim = lim (h + 2) = 2,
h→0
√ h h→0
√ h h→0
√
x+4−2 ( x + 4 − 2)( x + 4 + 2) x
lim = lim √ = lim √
x→0 x x→0 x( x + 4 + 2) x→0 x( x + 4 + 2)

1 1
= lim √ = .
x→0 x+4+2 4

Theorem 1. If f (x) ≤ g(x) near x = a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).

x→a x→a

Theorem 2. The Sandwich Theorem (The Squeeze Theorem): If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) near
x = a, and limx→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) = L, then limx→a g(x) = L.

Example 35. Show that

3
lim x4 cos =0
x→0 x
by the Squeeze Theorem.

Solution: By −x4 ≤ x4 cos x3 ≤ x4 .

Example 36. By the special inequalities in Section 1.3, we have

lim sin x = 0, lim cos x = 1.

x→0 x→0

21
 2.4 One-sided limits

Definition 3. We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

and say that the limit of f (x) is L as x approaches a from the left. Similarly, We write

lim f (x) = L
x→a+

and say that the limit of f (x) is L as x approaches a from the right.

Theorem 3.
lim f (x) = L ⇔ lim− f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

Example 37. Consider the Heaviside function

(
0, t < 0;
H(t) =
1, t ≥ 0.

lim H(t) = 1,
t→2

lim H(t) = 1, lim− H(t) = 0, ⇒ lim H(t)∄.

t→0+ t→0 t→0

|x|
Example 38. lim ∄.
x→0 x

|x| |x|
∵ lim− x
= −1, lim+ x
= 1.
x→0 x→0

Example 39. Let 

 x − 5,
 x < 0;
f (x) = x2 + 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1;

 4 3
x − x + 4, x > 1.
Then lim f (x)∄ and lim f (x) = 4.
x→0 x→1

Example 40. Let 

 x − 5,
 x < 0;
2
f (x) = x + 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1;

 4
x − x3 + 4, x > 1.
Calculate limx→0 f (x) and limx→1 f (x).

22
Limits of trig functions:
Famous result:
sin h
lim = 1.
h→0 h
This will imply that
cos h − 1 cos2 h − 1 sin h sin h
lim = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h(cos h + 1) h→0 h cos h + 1

Example 41.
sin 2x sin 2x 3x 2x 2
lim = lim · · = .
x→0 sin 3x x→0 2x sin 3x 3x 3

2.5 Continuity

Definition 4. If limx→a f (x) = f (a), then f (x) is continuous at x = a, otherwise, f (x)

is discontinuous at x = a. If f (x) is continuous at any point on an interval, then f (x) is
continuous on the interval. For the end points, we only need sided limits.

Example 42. Explore discontinuity from graph.

2
Example 43. Consider f (x) = x −2x+1x−1
at x = 1. Sol: f (x) is undefined at x = 1. But
limx→1 f (x) = 0. So the discontinuous point x = 1 is removable if we define f (1) = 0.
|x|
Example 44. Determine the continuity of f (x) = x
.

Sol: x = 0 is not removable.

Definition 5. If limx→a− f (x) = f (a), then f (x) is continuous from the left at x = a; if
limx→a+ f (x) = f (a), then f (x) is continuous from the right at x = a.

Example 45. Determine the left and right continuity at x = 0:

(
|x|
x
, x ̸= 0;
f (x) = .
1, x = 0.

Solution: Continuous from right at x = 0, discontinuous from left at x = 0.

Theorem 4. If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at a, then

f
f ± g, f g, cf (c is a constant), (if g(a) ̸= 0)
g
are continuous.

23
Theorem 5. Polynomials, rational functions, root functions, trig functions, inverse trig
functions, exponential functions and logarithmic functions are continuous in their domain.

Theorem 6. If limx→a g(x) = b and f (x) is continuous at b, then

lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)) = f (b).

x→a x→a

Furthermore, if g(x) is continuous at a, and f (x) is continuous at g(a), then f (g(x)) is

continuous at a.

Example 46.
√ √
1− x 1− x 1 π
lim arcsin( ) = arcsin(lim ) = arcsin( ) = .
x→1 1−x x→1 1 − x 2 6
Example 47.
x+2
f (x) = , g(x) = x2 , consider a = 2 and a ̸= 2.
x−4
Theorem 7. (The Intermediate Theorem) If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], and N between
f (a) and f (b), then ∃c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = N .

Example 48.
4 −9x
+ =0
x − 5 (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
has solutions in (0, 1).
4 −9x
Proof. Let f (x) = x−5 + (x+1)(x−2)(x+3) . Then f (x) is continuous on [0,1]. f (0) = −4/5,
f (1) = 1/8. The conclusion follows from The Intermediate Theorem.

Example 49. Let 

 x − k,
 x < 1;
f (x) = 2 + 3c, x = 1;

 4 3
x − x + 4, x > 1.
Find c and k such that f (x) is continuous at x = 1.

Solution:
lim− f (x) = 1 − k, lim f (x) = 1 − 1 + 4 = 4. Since lim f (x)∃, 1 − k = 4,, i.e., k = −3.
x→1 x→1+ x→1
To be continuous at x = 1, f (x) = lim f (x), we have 2 + 3c = 4, c = 2/3.
x→1

24
 2.6 Limits involving infinity; Asymptotes of graphs

Part 1: Limits at ∞, HA

Definition 6. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

x→∞ x→−∞

3x2 −x−1
Example 50. f (x) = 2x2 +3x
has horizontal asymptote y = 32 .

 0,
 if n < m;
an xn +an−1 xn−1 +···+a0 an
Example 51. lim bm xm +bm−1 xm−1 +···+b0 = b
, if n = m; .
x→∞
 n

±∞, if n > m.

Example 52. lim sin x, lim cos x do not exist.

x→∞ x→∞

Example 53. y = tan−1 x has horizontal asymptotes y = π

2
and y = − π2 .

π π
lim tan−1 x = or lim tan−1 x = − .
x→∞ 2 x→−∞ 2

Example 54. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the function f (x) = ex .

Solution: limx→−∞ ex = 0. Thus, HA: y = 0 .

Example 55. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the function

√
f (x) = x2 + 1 − x.

Solution:
√ √
√ ( x2 + 1 − x)( x2 + 1 + x) 1
2
lim ( x + 1 − x) = lim √ = lim √ = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 1 + x x→∞ x2 + 1 + x
Thus, HA: y = 0 .

Example 56. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the function

√
f (x) = x2 + 5x + 1 − x.

25
 Solution:
√ √
√ ( x2 + 5x + 1 − x)( x2 + 5x + 1 + x)
2
lim ( x + 5x + 1 − x) = lim √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 5x + 1 + x
5x + 1 5
= lim √ = .
x→∞ x2 + 5x + 1 + x 2
5
Thus, HA: y = 2
.

Part 2: Infinite limits, VA

Definition 7.
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that f (x) can be arbitrarily large as x tends to a;

lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that f (x) can be arbitrarily large negative as x tends to a.

1 −1
Example 57. limx→0 x2
= ∞, limx→1 (x−1)2
= −∞.

Definition 8. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least
one of the following statements is true:

lim f (x) = ±∞, lim+ f (x) = ±∞, lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→a− x→a x→a

Example 58. Find the infinite limits, limits at infinity, and asymptotes for the function f
from its graph.
1
Example 59. f (x) = x
has HA: y = 0 and VA: x = 0.

Theorem 8. If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim = 0.
x→∞ xr

Example 60. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function
√
2x2 + 1
f (x) = .
4x − 8

26
 Solution: √ √ √ √
2x2 + 1 2 2x2 + 1 2
lim = , lim =− .
x→∞ 4x − 8 4 x→−∞ 4x − 8 4
√ √
Thus, HA: y = 42 and y = − 4
2
.
VA: 4x − 8 = 0 ⇒ x = 2.

Example 61. Evaluate

lim e1/x .
x→0−

Solution: Let t = 1/x, then x → 0− ⇔ t → −∞.

lim− e1/x = lim et = 0.

x→0 t→−∞

Part 3: Infinite limits at ∞

The notation lim f (x) = ∞ is used to indicate that the values of f(x) become large as
x→∞
x becomes large. Similar meanings are for

lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = −∞.

x→∞ x→−∞ x→−∞

Example 62. lim x5 = ∞, lim x5 = −∞, lim (x3 − x5 ) = ∓∞.

x→∞ x→−∞ x→±∞

Example 63. limx→∞ ex = ∞.

27
 Chapter 3. Derivatives

3.1 Tangent lines and the derivative at a point

Definition 9. The derivative of the function y = f (x) at a point a is

dy f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)

y ′ (a) = = f ′ (a) = lim = lim .
dx h→0 h x→a x−a
Meaning: f ′ (a) =

ˆ instantaneous rate of change of f (x) at a, or

ˆ rate of change of f (x) at a, or

ˆ the slope of the tangent line to the curve at a.

Example 64. Let f (x) = x2 . Calculate f ′ (5).

Solution:
f (5 + h) − f (5) (5 + h)2 − 52
f ′ (5) = lim = lim = 10.
h→0 h h→0 h

Definition 10. Let P = (a, f (a)) be a point on the curve y = f (x). The tangent of f (x) at
P is the line through P with slope

∆y f (x) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)

m = f ′ (a) = lim = lim = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x x→a x−a h→0 h
Example 65. Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line to the curve

y = f (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 1

at the point (2, 1). Sketch the curve.

28
 Solution: a = 2, f (a) = 1.

f (x) − f (2) 3x2 − 6x + 1 − 1

m = lim = lim = lim (3x) = 6.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

The tangent line is

y − 1 = 6(x − 2), =⇒, y = 6x − 11.
To sketch the curve, we complete square: y = 3(x − 1)2 − 2.

Example 66. Find the tangent line to the hyperbola xy = 4 at the point (1, 4).

Solution: a = 1, f (x) = y = 4/x.

4 4−4(1+h)
f (1 + h) − f (1) 1+h
−4 1+h −4h −4
m = lim = lim = lim = lim = lim = −4.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h(1 + h) h→0 1 + h

The tangent line is

y = −4x + b, =⇒, 4 = −4 + b, b = 8, y = −4x + 8.

Example 67. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = √1 at the point (0, 1).
x+1

Solution: a = 0,
√ 1
√
f (0 + h) − f (0) 0+h+1
−1 1− h+1
m = lim = lim = lim √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h + 1

−h 1
= lim √ √ =− .
h→0 h h + 1(1 + h + 1) 2

3.2 The derivative as a function

Definition 11. The derivative of the function y = f (x) is the function f ′ (x):

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h

29
Definition 12. (One sided derivatives):
f (a+h)−f (a)
ˆ Right-hand derivative at a: f ′ (a+) = lim+ h
.
h→0

f (a+h)−f (a)
ˆ Left-hand derivative at a: f ′ (a−) = lim− h
.
h→0
√
Example 68. Let f (x) = x − 3. Find f ′ (x) and state the domains of f and f ′ .

Solution:
√ √
′ f (x + h) − f (x) x+h−3− x−3
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
( x + h − 3 − x − 3)( x + h − 3 + x − 3)
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h − 3 + x − 3)
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ .
h→0 h( x + h − 3 + x − 3) h→0 x + h − 3 + x − 3 2 x−3
The domain of f : x − 3 ≥ 0, x ≥ 3.
√
The domain of f ′ : x − 3 ≥ 0 and 2 x − 3 ̸= 0 , x > 3.

Example 69. Find f ′ (x) from the graph of f .

Definition 13. The function f is differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. It is differentiable on

an interval if f ′ (a) exists for any a on the interval.

Theorem 9. If a function is differentiable at x = c, then the function is continuous at

x = c.

Example 70. f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.

Solution: (
1, if x > 0;
f ′ (x) = f ′ (0)∄.
−1, if x < 0.

30
 3.3 Differentiation rules

ˆ Constant rule: If f (x) = c, then f ′ (x) = 0 or d

dx
(c) = 0.

ˆ Power Rule: If f (x) = xn , n is any real number. Then f ′ (x) = nxn−1 .

ˆ Constant multiple rule: [cf (x)]′ = cf ′ (x).

ˆ Sum rule and difference rule: [f (x) ± g(x)]′ = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)

ˆ Derivative of polynomial: [an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 ]′ = an nxn−1 + an−1 (n −

1)xn−2 + ... + a1 .

ˆ Derivative of exponential function:

(ex )′ = ex , (ax )′ = ax ln a.

Example 71. Let f (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 − 23x + 7. Find the equation of the tangent line at
(1, −6).

Solution: f ′ (x) = 12x2 + 12x − 23. Let y = mx + b be the tangent line. Then

m = f ′ (1) = 1, ⇒ y = x + b.

Sub (1, −6): −6 = 1 + b, ⇒ b = −7, ⇒ y = x − 7.

√
Example 72. Find the equation of the tangent line to f (x) = 2 x − 3 at (4, 1).

Solution: f ′ (x) = x−1/2 ⇒ f ′ (4) = 1/2 ⇒ y = 1/2x − 1.

Example 73. Find the equation of the line(s) that pass through the point P (2, 9) and are
tangent to f (x) = −x2 + 2x. Sketch the graph.

Solution: f ′ (x) = −2x + 2. Let (a, f (a)) be a point on the curve whose tangent line
goes through P (2, 9). Then m = −2a + 2 ⇒

f (a) − 9
= −2a + 2, ⇒ a = −1, 5.
a−2
When a = −1, m = 4 ⇒ y = 4x + 1;
When a = 5, m = −8 ⇒ y = −8x + 25.

31
Example 74. At what point(s) on the curve y = ex is the tangent line
a) parallel to y = 3x − 2?
b) perpendicular to y = −2x?

Solution: (a): (ln 3, 3).

(b): (− ln 2, 1/2).

The product and quotient rules

ˆ Product rule:
[f (x)g(x)]′ = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x).

ˆ Quotient rule: ′
f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)

f (x)
= .
g(x) g(x)2
√
Example 75. Let f (x) = ( x + x2 )(x3 + x). Calculate f ′ (4).

Solution: By the product rule,

1 √ 1
f ′ (x) = ( √ + 2x)(x3 + x) + ( x + x2 )(3x2 + 1) ⇒ f ′ (4) = ( + 8)(68) + 18(49).
2 x 4

Example 76. Let f (x) = (x3 + 4x2 )(x5 + x + 1). Calculate f ′ (1) and the tangent at (1, 15).

Solution: By the product rule,

f ′ (x) = (3x2 + 8x)(x5 + x + 1) + (x3 + 4x2 )(5x4 + 1) ⇒ f ′ (1) = 63 ⇒ y = 63x − 48.

x2 −4
Example 77. At what point(s) on the curve y = x+1
is the tangent line
a) parallel to y = 3x?
b) perpendicular to y = −0.5x?

Solution: By quotient rule,

(x2 − 4)′ (x + 1) − (x2 − 4)(x + 1)′ 2x(x + 1) − (x2 − 4)1 x2 + 2x + 4

y′ = = = .
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2

32
 √
x2 +2x+4
a) Let y ′ = 3 ⇒ (x+1)2
=3⇒ 2x2 + 4x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = −1 ± 6
2 √
.
2
b) y ′ = − −0.5
1
= 2 ⇒ x(x+1)
+2x+4
2 = 2 ⇒ x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = −1 ± 2
3
.

Higher derivatives: Let y = f (x). Then

dy (n−1)
     
′′ ′′ d df d dy (n) (n) d
y (x) = f (x) = = , y (x) = f (x) = .
dx dx dx dx dx dx

Example 78. Let f (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 − 23x + 7. Then f ′′ (x) = 24x + 12, f ′′′ (x) = 24 and
f (4) (x) = 0.

Example 79.
1
(xn )(n) = n!, ( )(n) = (−1)n n!x−n−1 .
x
x
Example 80. Let f (x) = ex
. Calculate f (n) (x).

Solution:
1−x
f ′ (x) = ,
ex
−(2 − x)
f ′′ (x) = ,
ex
(3 − x)
f ′′′ (x) = ,
ex
..
.
(−1)n+1 (n − x)
f (n) (x) = .
ex

3.4 The derivative as a rate of change

The derivative f ′ (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) with respect to x at a.

Example 81. The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by

4
V = πr3 .
3
dV
Calculate dr
by definition. What’s the meaning of this derivative?

33
 Solution:
4
dV V (r + h) − V (r) π(r + h)3 − 43 πr3
= lim = lim 3
dr h→0 h h→0 h
4 (r + h)3 − r3 4 3r2 h + 23rh2 + h3
= π lim = π lim = 4πr2 .
3 h→0 h 3 h→0 h
The derivative is the surface area.

Definition 14. Let s = f (t) be position function.

change in distance ∆s
average velocity = v̄ = vavg = = .
change in time ∆t
Instantaneous velocity, or velocity, or rate of change at t is

f (t + h) − f (t)
v(t) = lim = f ′ (t).
h→0 h
Speed:
speed = |v(t)|.
Acceleration:
a(t) = v ′ (t) = f ′′ (t).
Jerk:
j(t) = a′ (t) = f ′′′ (t).

Example 82. The position of a particle is given by

s = t3 − 15t2 + 63t, t≥0

where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.

a) What is the initial position? initial velocity? initial acceleration?
b) Find the velocity after 1s and 4s.
c) When is the particle at rest?
d) When is the particle moving in the positive direction?
e) When is the acceleration 0?
f ) Find the displacement and the velocity at that time from e).

Solution:

s = t3 − 15t2 + 63t, ⇒ s′ (t) = 3t2 − 30t + 63, ⇒ s′′ (t) = 6t − 30.

34
 a) s(0) = 0, v(0) = s′ (0) = 63, a(0) = s′′ (0) = −30.
b) v(1) = s′ (1) = 36, v(4) = s′ (4) = −9.
c) s′ (t) = 3t2 − 30t + 63 = 0, ⇒ t = 3, 7.
d) s′ (t) = 3t2 − 30t + 63 > 0, ⇒ 0 < t < 3, or t > 7.
e) s′′ = 0 ⇒ t = 5.

Example 83. Consider the position function

s = t2 − 3t + 5.

Find the velocity at t = 1 and t = 4, interpret your results.

Solution:
t2 − 3t + 5 − 3
v(1) = lim = −1.
t→1 t−1
It means move backward.
t2 − 3t + 5 − 9
v(4) = lim = 5.
t→1 t−4
It means move forward.

Example 84. A spherical balloon is being inflated. Find the rate of change of the volume
with respect to the radius when the radius is 2cm.

Solution: Let r be the radius, v(r) be the volume. From

4
v(r) = πr3
3
we have
4
∆v πr3 − 34 π23 4
π(r − 2)(r2 + 2r + 22 )
rate of change = lim = lim 3 = lim 3 = 16π.
∆r→0 ∆r r→2 r−2 r→2 r−2

35
 3.5 Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Recall the result:

sin h
lim = 1.
h→0 h

Derivative of Trig Functions:

(sin x)′ = cos x, (cos x)′ = − sin x, (tan x)′ = sec2 x, (sec x)′ = sec x tan x, ...

1+cos x
Example 85. Differentiate csc x, cot x, ex cos(x), 1+sin x
, ex sin x.

Example 86. Let y = sin(x), calculate y (10) (x).

Example 87. Given the position function s = f (t) = 2 sin(t), calculate the velocity and
acceleration at t = π3 .

3.6 The chain rule

ˆ Chain Rule:
df (g(x)) df (v) dg(x) dy dy du
[f (g(x))]′ = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x), = · , v = g(x), = · .
dx dv dx dx du dx

ˆ General Power Rule:

[u(x)n ]′ = nun−1 u′ (x).

Example 88. Let f (x) = (x2 − x − 1)100 . Calculate f ′ (x).

Solution: f ′ (x) = 100(x2 − x − 1)99 (x2 − x − 1)′ = 100(x2 − x − 1)99 (2x − 1).

Example 89. Let h(x) = g(f (x)), where f ′ (2) = 3, f (2) = 4, g ′ (3) = −5, g(4) = 8,
g ′ (4) = 7. Find h′ (2).

Solution: h′ (x) = g ′ (f (x))f ′ (x) ⇒ h′ (2) = g ′ (f (2))f ′ (2) = g ′ (4)(3) = 7(3) = 21.

p √
Example 90. Let y = x+ x2 + x. Calculate y ′ .

36
 Solution:
1 1 √
p y′ =
√ (x + x2 + x)′
2 x + x2 + x
   
1 1 1 2 ′ 1 2x + 1
= p √ 1+ √ (x + x) = p √ 1+ √
2 x + x2 + x 2 x2 + x 2 x + x2 + x 2 x2 + x

Example 91. Find the derivatives if

f (x) = sin x2 , g(x) = sin2 x, h(x) = esin x , k(x) = sin(cos(tan x))).

Solution:
f ′ (x) = 2x cos x2 .
g ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x.
h′ (x) = (cos x)esin x .
k ′ (x) = cos(cos(tan x)))(− sin(tan x))(sec2 x).

37
 3.7 Implicit differentiation

Implicit Differentiation: Assume f (x, y) = C. To find y ′ ,

ˆ consider x as an independent variable, y as a dependent variable;

ˆ differentiate both sides with respect to x;

ˆ isolate y ′ .

Example 92. Let

y 2 + x2 = xy + 3.
1) Find y ′ .
2) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at (1, 2).
3) Find all the points on the curve where the tangent line is either horizontal or vertical.
4) Find all the points on the curve where the tangent line is parallel to y = −x..

Solution: 1)

d 2 d y − 2x
(y + x2 ) = (xy + 3), ⇒ 2yy ′ + 2x = y + xy ′ , ⇒ y ′ = .
dx dx 2y − x

2) At (1,2), m = 0, the tangent line is y = 2.

3) Horizontal tangent line: y ′ = 0 ⇒ y − 2x = 0 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = 1, y = 2 or
x = −1, y = −2.
Vertical tangent line: y ′ = ∞ ⇒ 2y −x = 0 ⇒ y 2 = 1 ⇒ y = 1, x = 2 or y = −1, x = −2.

4) y ′ = −1, we imply that y = −x, x2 = 1, i.e., x = ±1. Thus we ge the points

(1, −1), (−1, 1).

Example 93. Find y ′ from tan(xy + x) = x + y.

Solution:
1 − sec2 (xy + x) (y + 1)
sec2 (xy + x) (y + xy ′ + 1) = 1 + y ′ , y ′ = .
x sec2 (xy + x) − 1

38
Normal line: The normal line of f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the line which is perpendicular to the
tangent line at the point.

Example 94. Let y 2 + x2 = xy + 3. Find the equation of the normal line to the curve at
(1, 2).

Solution:
1′
m⊥ = − |(1,2) = −3, ⇒ y = −3x + 5.
y′

3.8 Derivatives of Inverse Functions and Logarithms

A general formula for the derivative of inverse functions:

df −1 (x) 1
= ′ −1 .
dx f (f (x))

Proof. Let y = f −1 (x), then f (y) = x ⇒ f ′ (y)y ′ = 1.

Some special results:
ˆ Derivatives of log functions:

d 1 f ′ (x)
(ln x) = , (ln f (x))′ = ,
dx x f (x)

1 f ′ (x)
(loga |x|)′ = , (loga f (x))′ = , ...
x ln a f (x) ln a
Change base:
logc b
loga b = .
logc a

Example 95. Differentiate the following functions:

f (x) = x ln x.
ln x
g(x) = .
x
x
h(x) = e ln x.

39
 Solution:
f ′ (x) = x′ ln x + x(ln x)′ = ln x + 1.
(ln x)′ x − x′ ln x 1 − ln x
g ′ (x) = .
x2 x x2
e
h′ (x) = ex ln x + .
x

Example 96. Let f (x) = ln(x2 + x + 1). Find the tangent line to the function at the point
(0,0).

Solution:
2x + 1
f ′ (x) = .
x2 + x + 1
m = f ′ (0) = 1.
The tangent line is
y = x.

Logarithmic differentiation
x2 +x+5
Example 97. Differentiate (a): y = (x+1)2
, (b) y = xx , (c) y = (sin x)x .

Solution:
(a):
y′ 2x + 1 2 2x + 1 2
2
ln y = x ln(x +x+5)−2 ln(x+1), ⇒ = 2 − , ⇒ y ′ = y( 2 − ).
y x +x+5 x+1 x +x+5 x+1
(b):
y′ 1
ln y = x ln x, ⇒ = ln x + x · , ⇒ y ′ = xx (ln x + 1).
y x
(c):
y′ cos x cos x
ln y = x ln sin x, ⇒ = ln sin x + x · , ⇒ y ′ = xx (ln sin x + x · ).
y sin x sin x

Number e
1
e = lim (1 + x)1/x = lim (1 + )x .
x→0 x→∞ x

40
 3.9 Inverse trigonometric functions

Derivative of inverse trig functions:

d arcsin x 1 d arccos x 1 d arctan x 1

=√ , = √ , = .
dx 1 − x2 dx − 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2
b+a cos x


Example 98. y = sin(arctan 2x), y = arcsin a+b cos x
.

3.11 Linearization and differentials

LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS: we use the tangent line at (a, f (a)) as an approximation

to the curve y = f (x) when x is near a.
Definition 15. The approximation

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of f at a.

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

is called the linearization of f at a.

√
Example 99. Find the linearization of the function f (x) = x at a = 9 and use it to
√
approximate the numbers 9.06.

Solution:
√ 1 x 3 √ 0.06
x ≈ 3 + (x − 9) = + , 9.06 ≈ 3 + = 3.01.
6 6 2 6

Example 100. The linearization of the function f (x) = sin x at a = 0 is L(x) = x.

Definition 16. If y = f (x), where f is a differentiable function, then the differential dx

is an independent variable. That is, dx can be given the value of any real number. The
differential dy is then defined in terms of dx by the equation dy = f ′ (x)dx.

41
 Remark. dy represents the amount that the tangent line rises or falls (the change in the
linearization). ∆y represents the amount that the curve y = f (x) rises or falls when changes
by an amount dx.

Example 101. Compare the values of ∆y and dy if y = f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x + 1 and x

changes from: 2 to 2.01.

Solution. We have:
f (2) = 23 + 22 − 2(2) + 1 = 9,
f (2.01) = (2.01)3 + (2.01)2 − 2(2.01) + 1 = 9.140701,
∆y = f (2.01) − f (2) = 0.140701,
In general,
dy = f ′ (x)dx = (3x2 + 2x − 2)dx.
When dx = ∆x = 0.01,
dy = [3(2)2 + 2(2) − 2]0.01 = 0.14.

Example 102. The radius of a sphere was measured to be 21 cm with a possible error of
at most 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error in using this value of the radius to compute
the volume of the sphere?

Solution. This can be approximated by the differential

dV = 4πr2 dr.

When r = 21 and dr = 0.05, this becomes:

dV = 4π(21)2 0.05 ≈ 277.

42
 Chapter 4. Applications of Derivatives

4.1 Extreme values of functions on Closed Intervals

ˆ Absolute (Global) Maximum and Minimum: f (x) has a Global (Absolute) Maximum
at p if f (p) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain; f (x) has a Global (Absolute) Minimum at
p if f (p) ≤ f (x) for all x in the domain;

ˆ Local (or relative) extreme: f (x) has a local minimum at p if f (p) ≤ f (x) for points
x near p; f (x) has a local maximum at p if f (p) ≥ f (x) for points x near p;

ˆ Critical point (critical number): A point p in the domain such that f ′ (p) = 0 or f ′ (p)
undefined is called a critical number, (p, f (p)) is a critical point, f (p) is a critical
value.

EXTREME VALUE THEOREM: If f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then
f attains an absolute maximum value f(c) and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some
numbers c and d in [a, b].
FERMAT’s THEOREM: If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if f ′ (c) exists,
then f ′ (c) = 0.
CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD: To find a global maximum or minimum for f (x) on a
closed interval [a, b]:

1. Find all the critical numbers, e.g., x1 , ..., xn .

2. global minimum = min{f (x1 ), ..., f (xn ), f (a), f (b)};

global maximum = max{f (x1 ), ..., f (xn ), f (a), f (b)}.

Example 103. Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x3/5 (4 − x).

Sol: the critical numbers are 3/2 and 0.

43
Example 104. Find the global maximum and minimum of the function

f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 7, [−2, 0].

Sol: Step 1) f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 12, f ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = −1, 2, f ′ (x) is defined anywhere.
Hence x = −1 is the only one critical number in (−2, 0).
Step 2) global minimum = min{f (−2), f (−1), f (0)} = min{3, 14, 7} = 3;
global maximum = max{f (−2), f (−1), f (0)} = max{3, 14, 7} = 14.

Example 105. Find the global maximum and minimum of the function

f (x) = x2 e2x , [−2, 2].

Solution:
f ′ (x) = (2x + 2x2 )e2x , f ′ (x) = 0, x = −1, 0.
f (−2) = 4e−4 , f (−1) = e−2 , f (0) = 0, f (2) = 4e4 .
max = f (2) = 4e4 , min = f (0) = 0.

4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

ROLLE’s THEOREM: Let f be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]

2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)

3. f(a) = f(b)

Then, there is a number c in (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Remark. There is at least one point (c, f(c)) on the graph where the tangent is horizontal.
MEAN VALUE THEOREM: Let f be a function that satisfies the following two hypotheses:

1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]

2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)

44
Then, there is a number c in (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
Example 106. Let
f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 1, [0, 2].
Find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem.

Solution:
f (b) − f (a) f (2) − f (0)
f ′ (c) = ⇒ f ′ (c) = ⇒ 3c2 − 2c = 0 ⇒ .
b−a 2−0
c = 0, 23 . Since c ∈ (0, 2), c = 32 .

f (8)−f (5)
Example 107. Let f (x) = ln(x − 4). Find c such that f ′ (c) = 3
.

Solution:
f (8) − f (5) 1 ln(8 − 4) − ln(5 − 4) ln 4
f ′ (c) = ⇒ = = .
8−5 c−4 3 3
3
c= ln 4
+ 4.

Theorem. If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b); If
f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f (x) − g(x) is constant on (a, b).

Example 108. Simplify

f (x) = tan−1 x + cot−1 x.

Solution: Since f ′ (x) = 0, f (x) = c, c = f (1) = π

4
+ π
4
= π2 . ∴ f (x) = π2 .

45
 4.3 Monotonic functions and the first derivative test

INCREASING/DECREASING TEST (I/D TEST): If f ′ (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is

increasing on that interval. If f ′ (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
First Derivative Test: Let p be a critical number. If f ′ changes from - to + at p, then f
has a local minimum at p; If f ′ changes from + to - at p, then f has a local maximum at p.
Example 109. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 .
(a) Find all the critical numbers.
(b) State all the intervals of increase and decrease.
(c) Find all the local minimum points and all the local maximum points.

Solution:
(a) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2). Let f ′ (x) = 0. We have 3x(x − 2) = 0, which gives
x = 0, 2.
(b) Look at the following table
x −∞ < x < 0 0 < x < 2 2 < x < ∞
′
f (x) + - +
f (x) increase decrease increase
Therefore,
The intervals of increase: −∞ < x < 0, 2 < x < ∞.
The intervals of decrease: 0 < x < 2
(c) Note that at x = 0, f ′ (x) changes from + to -; at x = 2, f ′ (x) changes from - to +.
By the First Derivative Test, f (x) has a local maximum at x = 0 and a local minimum at
x = 2.

Example 110. Let g(x) = x + 2 sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

(a) Find all the critical numbers.
(b) State all the intervals of increase and decrease.
(c) Find all the local minimum points and all the local maximum points.

Solution:
(a) g ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos x, g ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 2π/3, 4π/3.
(b) Look at the following table
x 0 < x < 2π/3 2π/3 < x < 4π/3 4π/3 < x < 2π
f ′ (x) + - +
f (x) increase decrease increase
Therefore,
The intervals of increase: 0 < x < 2π/3, 4π/3 < x < 2π.

46
 The intervals of decrease: 2π/3 < x < 4π/3
(c) Note that at x = 2π/3, f ′ (x) changes from + to -; at x = 4π/3, f ′ (x) changes from
- to +. By the First Derivative Test, f (x) has a local maximum at x = 2π/3 and a local
minimum at x = 4π/3.

4.4 Concavity and curve sketching

Definition 17. (CONCAVITY)If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval
I, it is called concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is
called concave downward on I.
CONCAVITY TEST: If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on
I. If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
Definition 18. Point of inflection: If f (x) changes concavity at p, then p is an inflection
point, and f ′′ (p) = 0 or undefined.
Second Derivative Test: Let p be a critical number. If f ′′ (p) > 0, then f has a local
minimum at p; If f ′′ (p) < 0, then f has a local maximum at p; If f ′′ (p) = 0, then nothing.

Example 111. Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 .

(a) Find all the points of inflection.
(b) State intervals of concavity.
Solution:
(a) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2). f ′′ (x) = 6x − 6. f ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, 2. Note that
f ′′ (0) = −6 < 0 f ′′ (2) = 6 > 0 By the Second Derivative Test, f (x) has a local maximum
at x = 0 and a local minimum at x = 2.
(b) f ′′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 1.
x −∞ < x < 1 1 < x < ∞
f ′′ (x) - +
f (x) concave down concave up
Since f (x) changes concavity at x = 1, x = 1 is a point of inflection.
Concave up: 1 < x < ∞; Concave down: −∞ < x < 1.

47
Example 112. Consider the function
x
f (x) = .
x2 − 1
Study the concavity and find all the points of inflection.

Solution: The domain of the function: x ̸= ±1.

−1 − x2 2x(x2 + 3)
f ′ (x) = , f ′′ = .
(x2 − 1)2 (x2 − 1)3

f ′′ (x) = 0, ⇒ x = 0.
x −∞ < x < −1 −1 < x < 0 0<x<1 1<x<∞
′′
f (x) - + - +
f (x) concave down concave up concave down concave up

Example 113. Sketch f (x), which satisfies:

1. D = {x ̸= 0}.

2. lim f (x) = 1, limx→0+ f (x) = −∞, limx→0− f (x) = ∞.

x→±∞

3. f ′ (2) = f ′ (−2) = 0; f ′ (x) > 0 when 0 < x < 2 and −2 < x < 0; f ′ (x) < 0 when x > 2
and x < −2.

4. f ′′ (−3) = f ′′ (3) = 0; f ′′ (x) > 0 when x > 3 and −3 < x < 0; f ′′ (x) < 0 when x < −3
and 0 < x < 3.

5. f (2) = 2, f (−2) = −1.

Example 114. Use the first and second derivatives of f (x) = e1/x , together with asymptotes,
to sketch its graph.

Solution: Notice that the domain of f is {x|x ̸= 0}. So, we check for vertical asymptotes
by computing the left and right limits as x → 0.

lim e1/x = ∞, lim e1/x = 0.

x→0+ x→0−

This shows that x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

lim e1/x = 1,
x→±∞

this shows that y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

48
 The Chain Rule gives:
e1/x
f ′ (x) = − ,
x2
we have f ′ (x) < 0 for all x ̸= 0. Thus, f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and on (0, ∞) . There is
no critical number. So, the function has no maximum or minimum.

′′ e1/x (2x + 1)
f (x) = ,
x4
f ′′ (x) > 0 when x > −1/2(x ̸= 0), and f ′′ (x) < 0 when x < −1/2. So, the curve is concave
downward on (−∞, −1/2) and concave upward on (−1/2, 0) and on (0, ∞).
The inflection point is (−1/2, e−2 ).

Example 115. Show that ex ≥ 1 + x for x ≥ 0.

Proof. Let f (x) = ex − (1 + x). Then f ′ (x) = ex − 1 ≥ 0 when x ≥ 0. Thus f (x) is

increasing when x ≥ 0. Note that f (0) = 0, so f (x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ 0.
The following checklist is intended as a guide to sketching a curve y = f(x)
by hand.
Not every item is relevant to every function. For instance, a given curve might not have
an asymptote or possess symmetry. However, the guidelines provide all the information you
need to make a sketch that displays the most important aspects of the function.

ˆ A. DOMAIN

ˆ B. INTERCEPTS

ˆ C. SYMMETRY

1. EVEN FUNCTION: f(-x) = f(x) for all x in D. the curve is symmetric about the
y-axis. This means that our work is cut in half.
2. ODD FUNCTION: f(-x) = -f(x) for all x in D. the curve is symmetric about the
origin. This means that our work is cut in half.
3. PERIODIC FUNCTION: f(x + p) = f(x) for all x in D, where p is a positive
constant. The smallest such number p is called the period.

ˆ D. ASYMPTOTES

– HORIZONTAL: limx→±∞ f (x) = L, then y = L is a HA.

– VERTICAL: limx→a± f (x) = ±∞, then x = a is a VA.

49
 ˆ E. INTERVALS OF INCREASE OR DECREASE: use I/D Test.

ˆ F. LOCAL MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES: First Derivative Test or Second

Derivative Test.

ˆ G. CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF INFLECTION

Example 116. Consider the function

1/3
f (x) = x2 (6 − x)

, −∞ < x < ∞.

We have (you don’t need to check the following results!)

4−x −8
f ′ (x) = p , f ′′ (x) = p .
3
x(6 − x)2 3
x (6 − x)5
4

a) Find all the critical numbers of f (x).

b) Find all the intervals of increasing and decreasing, and classify all the critical numbers
as local maxima, minima, or neither.
c) Study the concavity and find the point(s) of inflection.
d) Sketch the graph. (Remark. f (x) has no vertical and horizontal asymptotes).

Solution: a) From f ′ (x) = 0 we get x = 4;

From f ′ (x) undefined we imply that x = 0, 6.
So we have three critical numbers x = 4, 0, 6.

b) Look at the following table

x −∞ < x < 0 0 < x < 4 4 < x < 6 6 < x < ∞
f ′ (x) - + - -
f (x) decreasing increasing decreasing decreasing
√
3
By the First Derivative Test, f (0) = 0 is a local minimum, f (4) = 32 is a local maxi-
mum, f (6) is neither.

c) Note that f ′′ (x) undefined at x = 0, 6. Look at the following table

x −∞ < x < 0 0<x<6 6<x<∞
f ′′ (x) - - +
f (x) concave down concave down concave up

x = 6 or (6, f (6)) is a point of inflection.

50
Example 117. Sketch the graph of:

2x2 sin x
f (x) = 2 , f (x) = xex , f (x) = , f (x) = ln(1 − x2 ).
x −4 2 + cos x
Example 118. Sketch the graph of f if f satisfies all of the following:
(i) f ′ (x) > 0 on (−∞, 1), f ′ (x) < 0 on (1, ∞);
(ii) f ′′ (x) > 0 on (−∞, −2) and (2, ∞), f ′′ (x) < 0 on (−2, 2);
(iii) lim f (x) = −2, lim f (x) = 0;
x→−∞ x→∞
(iv) f (−2) = 0, f (1) = 5, f (2) = 3.

4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rule

In this section, we are going to deal with the limit with the form:
0 ∞
, , 1∞ , 0 · ∞, 00 , ...
0 ∞
f (x) 0 ∞
L’Hospital’s rule: If g(x)
becomes 0
or ∞
as x → x0 , where x0 is finite or ∞, then

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ .
x→x0 g(x) x→x0 g (x)
−
Remark. x → x0 can be replaced by any of the symbols x → x+
0 , x → x0 , x → ∞, or
x → −∞.

Example 119. Calculate

sin x sin x et − t − 1 (ln x)2

lim , lim , lim , lim .
x→0 x x→0 x2 t→0 t2 x→∞ x2
Example 120. Calculate  x
2 −x 1
lim x e , lim 1 − .
x→∞ x→∞ x

51
 Solution:
x2 2x 2 0
lim x2 e−x = lim x
= lim x = lim x = lim x = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ e x→∞ e x→∞ e x→∞ e
1 x


To solve the second limit, let y = 1 − x , then
ln 1 − x1
 

1
ln y = x ln 1 − = 1 .
x x
1 1


ln 1 − x x2
lim ln y = lim 1 = lim = −1. ⇒
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ − 12 (1 − 1 )
x x x
1
lim y = .
x→∞ e

4.8 Antiderivatives
Definition 19. A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval I if F ′ (x) = f (x)
for all x in I.
Some basic results:

function antiderivative formula

R
k kx + C kdx = kx + C
xn+1 n+1
x dx = xn+1 + C; (n ̸= −1)
n
R n
x , n ̸= −1 n+1
+C
1 kx
e dx = k1 ekx + C
R kx
ekx k
e +C
akx kx
a dx = kaln a + C
R kx
akx k ln a
+C
1
R 1
x
ln |x| + C x
dx = ln |x| + C
1
cos kxdx = k1 sin kx + C
R
cos kx k
sin kx + C
1
sin kxdx = − k1 cos kx + C
R
sin kx − k cos kx + C
1
sec2 kxdx = k1 tan kx + C
R
sec2 kx k
tan kx + C
1
sec kx tan kxdx = k1 sec kx + C
R
sec kx tan kx k
sec kx + C
√ 1 2 1 √ 1 2 dx = k1 arcsin kx + C
R
k
arcsin kx + C
1−(kx) 1−(kx)
1 1 1
dx = k1 arctan kx + C
R
1+(kx)2 k
arctan kx + C 1+(kx)2
R R
kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx
R R R
[f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.

52
 x2 −1
= (x−1 − x−3 )dx = ln |x| + 1
R R
Example 121. x3
dx 2x2
+ C.

sin 4x + e5x dx = − 41 cos 4x + 15 e5x + C.

R

4x2 − 22
Example 122. Given f ′ (x) = sin x + .
x3
(a) Find f (x).

(b) Find f (x) such that f (1) = 3.

Solution: (a)

f ′ (x) = sin x + 4x−1 − 22x−3 , ⇒ f (x) = − cos x + 4 ln |x| + 11x−2 + C.

(b)
f (1) = 3 ⇒ − cos 1 + 11 + C = 3 ⇒ C = cos 1 − 8.
Thus f (x) = 4 ln |x| + 11x−2 + cos 1 − 8.

RECTILINEAR MOTION*: Antidifferentiation is particularly useful in analyzing the mo-

tion of an object moving in a straight line. The position function is an antiderivative of the
velocity function. The velocity function is an antiderivative of the acceleration.

Example 123. An object moves along a coordinate line with velocity

v(t) = 2 − 3t + 3t2 units/s.

Its initial position is 2 units to the right of the origin(when t=0). Find the position of the
object and acceleration after 4s.

Solution: Let s(t) be the position. Then s(0) = 2. Since s′ (t) = v(t),
3
s(t) = 2t − t2 + t3 + C.
2
s(0) = 2 ⇒ C = 2 and
3
s(t) = 2t − t2 + t3 + 2. ⇒
2
s(4) = 50, a(4) = v ′ (4) = 21.

53
 Chapter 5. Integrals

5.1- 5.2 Area, Sigma notation and limits of finite sum

We want to estimate the area of the region S bounded by the continuous func-
tion y = f (x) (where f (x) ≥ 0), x = a, x = b and the x-axis.

n
X b−a
GRS(General Riemann Sum) = f (ci )∆x, xi−1 ≤ ci ≤ xi , ∆x = .
i=1
n

Definition 20. Let f (x) ≥ 0. The area of the region below the continuous function y = f (x),
over [a, b] is:
Area = lim Rn = lim Ln = lim Mn .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

5.3 The Definite Integral

Definition 21. Definite integral

Z b n
X b−a
f (x)dx = lim GRS, GRS = f (ci )∆x, xi−1 ≤ ci ≤ xi , ∆x = .
a n→∞
i=1
n

The relation to area is:

Definition 22. Let f (x) ≥ 0. The area of the region below the continuous function y = f (x),
over [a, b] is:
Z b
Area = f (x) dx.
a

Generally, Z b
f (x)dx = area above x-axis - area below x-axis.
a

54
 R5
Example 124. Calculate 0
f (x)dx, where


 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1;

 1, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2;
f (x) =


 3 − x, 2 ≤ x ≤ 3;
 p
− 1 − (x − 4)2 , 3 ≤ x ≤ 5.
Solution: Z 5
f (x)dx = area above x-axis - area below x-axis
0
(1 + 3)1 1 π
= − π(1)2 = 2 − .
2 2 2

Some basic properties about definite integral:

Rb
ˆ a cdx = c(b − a);
Rb Ra
ˆ a f (x)dx = − b f (x)dx;
Ra
ˆ a f (x)dx = 0;
Rc Rb Rb
ˆ a f (x)dx + c f (x)dx = a f (x)dx;
Rb Rb Rb
ˆ a [f (x) ± g(x)]dx = a f (x)dx ± a g(x)dx;
Rb Rb
ˆ Constant multiple: a cf (x)dx = c a f (x)dx;

ˆ Comparison of Definite Integrals: If f (x) ≤ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≤ g(x)dx.
a a

In particular, if m ≤ f (x) ≤ M , then

Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
R5 R5 R5
Example 125. Let 1
f (x) dx = 3, 1
g(x) dx = 5. Calculate 1
[2f (x) − g(x) − 1] dx.
Solution:
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
[2f (x) − g(x) − 1] dx = 2 f (x) dx − g(x) dx − 1 dx
1 1 1 1

= 2(3) − 5 − 1(5 − 1) = −3.

55
Example 126. Find an upper bound and a lower bound to
Z 5π/6
sin x dx.
π/3

Solution: Let f (x) = sin x. f ′ (x) = cos x = 0 ⇒ x = π2 . By Closed Interval Method,

√
π π 5π 3 1
max f (x) = max{f ( ), f ( ), f ( )} = max{1, , } = 1,
2 3 6 2 2
√
π π 5π 3 1 1
min f (x) = min {f ( ), f ( ), f ( )} = min{1, , }= .
2 3 6 2 2 2
Thus Z 5π/6
1 5π π 5π π
( − )≤ sin x dx ≤ 1( − ), i.e,
2 6 3 π/3 6 3
Z 5π/6
π π
≤ sin x dx ≤ .
4 π/3 2

Example 127. Find the area under the curve f (x) = 1/x over [1, 2].

Z b
1
Average value (mean value) of f (x) from a to b = f (x)dx.
b−a a

Example 128. Find the average value of x3 over [0, 2].

5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

ˆ FTC1: The (first) Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If

Z x
g(x) = f (t)dt,
a

then g ′ (x) = f (x);

ˆ FTC2: If F ′ (x) = f (x), then

Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

56
Example 129.
Z x
d
f (t)dt = f (x),
dx 0
Z x2 Z u
d d du
f (t)dt = f (t)dt · = 2xf (x2 ), u = x2 ,
dx 0 du 0 dx
Z x3 Z 0 Z x3 !
d d
f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = −2xf (x2 ) + 3x2 f (x3 ).
dx x2 dx x2 0

Rx 2
Example 130. Let g(x) = a et dt. Calculate g ′ (2) and g ′′ (2).
R2
Example 131. Calculate 0 3t dt.
1 t
Solution: Let f (t) = 3t , then F (t) = ln 3
3 + C.
Z 2
8
3t dt = F (2) − F (0) = .
0 ln 3

Example 132. Let f ′ (x) = x3 , f (0) = 1. Calculate f (2).

Solution:
Z b Z 2
′ 1
f (b) = f (a) + f (x)dx ⇒ f (2) = f (0) + f ′ (x)dx = 1 + x4 |20 = 5.
a 0 4

Total area

Example 133. Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of f (x) =
x3 − 2x2 − 3x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Solution: Step 1: Find zeros: x = −1, 0, 3; Step 2:

Z 0 Z 3
total area = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
−1 0

57
 5.6 Area Between Curves

Theorem. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then the area of the region bounded by

y = f (x), y = g(x), x = a, x = b

is Z b
(f (x) − g(x))dx.
a
Example 134. Calculate the area of the region bounded by

y = x2 − 4x + 7, y = −x2 + 4x + 1.

Solution:
Step 1. Find intersections: Let

(−x2 + 4x + 1) = (x2 − 4x + 7), ⇒

x2 − 4x + 3 = 0, ⇒ x = 1, x = 3.
Step 2. In (1, 3): −x2 + 4x + 1 > x2 − 4x + 7. Therefore
Z 3
area = [(−x2 + 4x + 1) − (x2 − 4x + 7)]dx
1
Z 3  
2 3
= (−2x + 8x − 6)dx = − x + 4x − 6x |31
2 2
1 3
   
2 3 2 2 3 2
= − (3) + 4(3) − 6(3) − − (1) + 4(1) − 6(1)
3 3
8 8
= 0 − (− ) = .
3 3

Example 135. Calculate the area of the region bounded by

y = x2 − 4x + 7, y = −x2 + 4x + 1, x = 0, x = 2.

Solution: Step 1. Find intersections: Let (−x2 +4x+1) = (x2 −4x+7), ⇒ x2 −4x+3 =
0, ⇒ x = 1, x = 3.

58
 Step 2. By using the intersections, the interval (0, 2) is divided into (0, 1) and (1, 2). In
(0, 1): x2 − 4x + 7 > −x2 + 4x + 1; In (1, 2): −x2 + 4x + 1 > x2 − 4x + 7. Therefore
Z 1 Z 2
2 2
area = [(x − 4x + 7) − (−x + 4x + 1)]dx + [(−x2 + 4x + 1) − (x2 − 4x + 7)]dx
0 1
Z 1 Z 2
2
= (2x − 8x + 6)dx + (−2x2 + 8x − 6)dx.
0 1

Example 136. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas y = 2x−x2 and y = x2 .

Solution: Step 1. Find intersections: 2x − x2 = x2 ⇒ x = 0, x = 1.

Step 2. For 0 < x < 1, 2x − x2 > x2 .
Z 1
2 1
area = [2x − x2 − x2 ]dx = 1 − = .
0 3 3

Example 137. Calculate the area of the region bounded by

π
y = sin x, y = cos x, x = 0, x = .
2
Solution: The intersection on [0, π/2] is x = π4 .
Z π/4 Z π/2 √
area = (cos x − sin x)dx + (sin x − cossinx)dx = 2 2 − 2.
0 π/4

Example 138. Find the area of the region bounded by

y = ex , y = 4e−x , y = 1.

59
 Solution: Intersections:
1) From ex = 4e−x , x = ln 2;
2) From ex = 1, x = 0;
3) From 4e−x = 1, x = ln 4.
Thus Z ln 2 Z ln 4
A= x
(e − 1)dx + (4e−x − 1)dx.
0 ln 2

Example 139. Calculate the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , y = 4x.

Solution: Intersections are x = −2, 0, 2. Thus

Z 0 Z 2
3
A= (x − 4x)dx + (4x − x3 )dx.
−2 0

Theorem. If the region is bounded by

x = f (y), x = g(y), y = c, y = d

where f (y) ≥ g(y) for c ≤ y ≤ d, then the area of the region is

Z d
A= (f (y) − g(y))dy.
c

Example 140. Calculate the area of the region enclosed by

y = x − 1, y 2 = 2x + 6.

60
Solution: Z 4
1
A= [(y − 1) − ( y 2 − 3)]dy = 18.
−2 2

61