Google Voice Based LED Display

ABSTRACT:

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to

perform a dedicated function. Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a
personal computer, an embedded system performs one or a few pre-defined tasks,
usually with very specific requirements, and often includes task-specific hardware
and mechanical parts not usually found in a general-purpose computer.

In our project, we have used the vast capability of serial communication to

control & update of notice board situated at many places like Hostel and College
with the help of Google Voice.

These notice boards/public display systems can be controlled & updated

serially in fraction of seconds, using microcontrollers & keyboard. LED Pannels
are used as display boards which have higher resolution, better control & display
capabilities. It can not only display letters, digits, symbols but also various
graphical images. Computer situated at control room sends the notice to be
displayed ,Notice Board Receives the notice and display it in the LED Pannel. All
the Controlling is done by the Microcontroller at the serial end.

The aim of our project is to Control all the notice board/public display
system situated at many places like railway stations, schools/colleges, offices,
airports, hospitals, public addressing system & many more simultaneously from
user’s voice and it will be operated by android application.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

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 Bluetooth LATCH AND
DRIVER CIRCUIT

MICROCONTROLLER

Android App using

Internet
LED MATRIX
DISPLAY ARRAY

INTRODUCTION:

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Visual impact is the most effective mode of influencing human minds which is the
main aim of advertisements etc. A display device serves this purpose. A display
device is a device for presentation of information for visual or tactile reception,
acquired, stored, or transmitted in various forms. The display devices used to
display information on machines, clocks, railway departure indicators and many
other Devices require a simple display of limited resolution. The display consists
of a matrix of lights or mechanical indicators arranged in a rectangular
configuration (other shapes are also possible, although not common) such that by
switching on or off selected lights, text or graphics can be displayed. Various
modifications has been made in the display board. Now LED display panels are
widely used throughout the world in all situations to create images for visual
displays in a variety of applications including communication and visual display
devices. LED array display board is a popular instrument for commercial usage.
Many banks, shops and cinemas are willing to install one piece of it because of its
versatility. LED array display board can be very bright and eye-catching. Display
signs used for advertising or for displaying direction or other information to
motorists have an important feature in common. They should be eye-catching
and their information should be easy to absorb. In advertising, a signboard made
of an LED display generally standing at a conspicuous location, such as a bustling
road, is widely used. The LED display comprises a plurality of LEDs controlled by
special hardware and software to perform moving images on a screen thereof to
attract the attention of passersby. The LED array display board is used in a bank to
show the current stock market value, currency exchange rate and interests rate. It
can also be used in a shop to tell people the prices and other commercial

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information. LED display board serves the above purposes with advantages
rendered by LEDs:
• LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or
energy-saving devices.
• LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without the use of colour filters that
traditional lighting
methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
• The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent
and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and
direct it in a usable manner.
• LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or
HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
• LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock.
Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the ground.
• LEDs can have a relatively long useful life.
• LEDs light up very quickly’
• LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.

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Organic light emitting diodes (OLED) are a promising technology for flat-panel
displays. Owing to high brightness, fast response speed, light weight, thin and
small features, full colour, no viewing angle differences, no need for an LCD back-
light board and low electrical consumption, an organic light emitting diode display
takes the lead to substitute a twist nomadic (TN), a super twist nomadic (STN)
liquid crystal display, or a small-sized thin-film transistor (TFT) LCD display. Light
emitting diodes are useful in a wide range of high and low resolution display
devices.

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps

additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.

An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

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Electronic symbol

Fig 2.6.1Pin configuration:

A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌɛl.iːˈdiː/[1], or just /lɛd/) is a semiconductor light
source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, [2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually
small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation
pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliance. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting
are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

Construction of LED:

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Fig 2.7.1 Parts of an LED

2.7.2 The inner workings of an LED

Colors and materials:

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color Wavelength Voltage Semiconductor Material
(nm) (V)
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
< 2.03 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
< 2.10 Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

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 Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
< 2.18 Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
[32]
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9 < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride
ΔV < 4.0 (GaN)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
< 3.7 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
< 4.0
Purple multiple types 2.48 < ΔV Dual blue/red LEDs,
< 3.7 blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Ultraviole λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < diamond (235 nm)[33]
t 4.4 Boron nitride (215 nm)[34][35]
Aluminum nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[36]
Aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminum gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — (down
to 210 nm)[37]

Table No 2.7.1 Material used in LEDs

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the
primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the
number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS
less than NP.

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In the vast majority of transformers, the coils are wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core
transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden
inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions
of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs
is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic
circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household
("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmissionwhich makes
long distance transmission economically practical.
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-
up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil

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which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation

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Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in
one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary
circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe

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operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Internal Block Diagram

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 FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,

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in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward
bias only.

FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies

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for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the

power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can
show how the capacitor changes and discharges.

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MICROCONTROLLER:

Microcontroller is a reprogrammable clock driven devices which takes input binary

data controls it and gives a specified controlled output.
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer on
a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR
flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in
contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.

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 Fig3.27.Image of microcontroller

A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with

memory RAM, ROM or EPROM, various I/O features such as Serial ports, Parallel
Ports, Timer/Counters, Interrupt Controller, Data Acquisition interfaces-Analog to
Digital Converter (ADC), Digital to Analog Converter (DAC), everything
integrated onto a single Silicon Chip. It does not mean that any micro controller
should have all the above said features on chip, Depending on the need and area of
application for which it is designed, The ON-CHIP features present in it may or
may not include all the individual section said above. Any microcomputer system
requires memory to store a sequence of instructions making up a program, parallel
port or serial port for communicating with an external system, timer / counter for
control purposes like generating time delays, Baud rate for the serial port, apart
from the controlling unit called the Central Processing Unit

A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed

amount of RAM, ROM,I/OPORTS ,and a timer all on a single chip. In other
words, the processor, RAM, ROM, I/OPORTS, and timer are all embedded
together on one chip; therefore, the designer can’t add any external memory, I/O,
or timer to it. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O
PORTS in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost
and space are critical. In many applications, for example a TV remote control,
there is no need for the computing power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor.

3.10.2. Necessity of microcontrollers:

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 Microprocessors brought the concept of programmable devices and
made many applications of intelligent equipment. Most applications, which do not
need large amount of data and program memory is the microcontroller.

a. Costly:

The microprocessor system had to satisfy the data and program requirements so;
sufficient RAM and ROM are used to satisfy most applications .The peripheral
control equipment also had to be satisfied. Therefore, almost all-peripheral chips
were used in the design. Because of these additional peripherals cost will be
comparatively high. An example:

8085 chip needs:

An Address latch for separating address from multiplexed address and

data.32-KB RAM and 32-KB ROM to be able to satisfy most applications. As also
Timer / Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial port, and Interrupt controller
are needed for its efficient applications.

In comparison a typical Micro controller 8051 chip has all that the 8051
board has except a reduced memory as follows.

4K bytes of ROM as compared to 32-KB, 128 Bytes of RAM as compared to 32-

KB.

b.Bulky:

On comparing a board full of chips (Microprocessors) with one chip with all
components in it (Micro controller).

c.Debugging:

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 Lots of Microprocessor circuitry and program to debug. In Micro controller
there is no Microprocessor circuitry to debug. Slower Development time: As we
have observed Microprocessors need a lot of debugging at board level and at
program level, whereas, Micro controller do not have the excessive circuitry and
the built-in peripheral chips are easier to program for operation. So peripheral
devices like Timer/Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial Communication
Port, Interrupt controller and so on, which were most often used were integrated
with the Microprocessor to present the Micro controller .RAM and ROM also were
integrated in the same chip. The ROM size was anything from 256 bytes to 32Kb
or more. RAM was optimized to minimum of 64 bytes to 256 bytes or more.

3.10.3. Typical Microcontroller has all the following features:

 8/16/32 CPU
 Instruction set rich in I/O & bit operations.
 One or more I/O ports.
 One or more timer/counters.
 One or more interrupt inputs and an interrupt controller
 One or more serial communication ports.
 Analog to Digital /Digital to Analog converter
 One or more PWM output
 Network controlled interface

3.10.4. Advantages:
If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go
for external memory such as RAM, ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence
the size of the PCB will be large enough to hold all the required peripherals. But,
the micro controller has got all these peripheral facilities on a single chip so
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development of a similar system with a micro controller reduces PCB size and cost
of the design. One of the major differences between a micro controller and a
microprocessor is that a controller often deals with bits , not bytes as in the real
world application, for example switch contacts can only be open or close,
indicators should be lit or dark and motors can be either turned on or off and so
forth.

LED PANNEL:-
An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video
display. An LED panel is a small display, or a component of a larger display. They
are typically used outdoors in store signs and billboards, and in recent years have
also become commonly used in destination signs on public transport vehicles or
even as part of transparent glass area. LED panels are sometimes used as form
of lighting, for the purpose of general illumination, task lighting, or even stage
lighting rather than display.

There are two types of LED panels: conventional (using discrete LEDs)
and surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some
indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, also known as individually mounted
LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-
color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are
measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. The largest LED
display in the world is over 500 meters long and is located in Suzhou, China,
covering the Yuanrong Times Square . The largest LED television in the world is

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the Center Hung Video Display at Cowboys Stadium, which is 160 ft × 72 ft (49 m
× 22 m), 11,520 square feet (1,070 m2).

Most indoor screens on the market are built using SMD technology— a trend that
is now extending to the outdoor market. An SMD pixel consists of red, green, and
blue diodes mounted in a single package, which is then mounted on the driver PC
board. The individual diodes are smaller than a pinhead and are set very close
together. The difference is that the maximum viewing distance is reduced by 25%
from the discrete diode screen with the same resolution. Indoor use generally
requires a screen that is based on SMD technology and has a
minimum brightness of 600 candelas per square meter (cd/m², sometimes
informally called nits). This will usually be more than sufficient for corporate and
retail applications, but under high ambient-brightness conditions, higher
brightness may be required for visibility. Fashion and auto shows are two
examples of high-brightness stage lighting that may require higher LED brightness.
Conversely, when a screen may appear in a shot on a television studio set, the
requirement will often be for lower brightness levels with lower color
temperatures; common displays have a white point of 6500–9000 K, which is
much bluer than the common lighting on a television production set.

For outdoor use, at least 2,000 cd/m² is required for most situations, whereas
higher-brightness types of up to 5,000 cd/m² cope even better with direct sunlight
on the screen. (The brightness of LED panels can be reduced from the designed
maximum, if required.)

Suitable locations for large display panels are identified by factors such as line of
sight, local authority planning requirements (if the installation is to become semi-

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permanent), vehicular access (trucks carrying the screen, truck-mounted screens,
or cranes), cable runs for power and video (accounting for both distance and
health and safety requirements), power, suitability of the ground for the location
of the screen (if there are no pipes, shallow drains, caves, or tunnels that may not
be able to support heavy loads), and overhead obstructions.

Flat panel LED television display

The first true all-LED flat panel television screen was possibly developed,
demonstrated and documented by James P. Mitchell in 1977. The modular,
scalable display was initially designed with hundreds of MV50 LEDs and a newly
available transistor-transistor logic memory addressing circuit fromNational
Semiconductor. The ¼ in thin flat panel prototype and the scientific paper were
displayed at the 29th ISEF expo in Washington D.C. in May 1978. It received
awards by NASA, and General Motors Corporation . A liquid crystal display (LCD)
matrix design was also cited in the LED paper as an alternative x-y scan
technology and as a future alternate television display method. The replacement
of the 70 year+ high-voltage analog system (cathode-ray tube technology) with a
digital x-y scan system has been a significant achievement. Displacement of the
electromagnetic scan systems included the removal of inductive deflection,
electron beam and color convergence circuits. The digital x-y scan system has
helped the modern television to “collapse” into its current thin form factor.

The 1977 model was monochromatic by design. Efficient blue LEDs did not arrive
for another decade. Large displays now use high-brightness diodes to generate a
wide spectrum of colors. It took three decades and organic light-emitting

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diodes for Sony to introduce an LED TV: the Sony XEL-1 OLED screen which was
marketed in 2009.

The largest 3D LED television display

The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final match between Manchester United and
Barcelona was broadcast live in 3D format in Gothenburg (Sweden), on
an EKTA screen. It had a refresh rate of 100 Hz, a diagonal of 7.11 m (23 ft 3.92 in)
and a display area of 6.192×3.483 m, and was listed in the Guinness Book of
Records as the largest LED 3D TV.

LED text displays

LED text displays refer to types that are specialized and limited to display of
alpha-numeric characters. Most types display either one character or a group of
characters. One character is generally displayed by a matrix of LEDs, or by a
matrix of segments.

LED Driver – MAX7219:

LED driver used is MAX7219. It can drive 64 single LEDs. The 7219 can source up
to 40mA and control an 8x8 single LED matrix. (Here 2 MAX7219 is used to control
a 4X4 matrix). Individual LEDs can be turned on or off with 3 wire serial interface

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(CLK, DATA, LOAD). 16 Brightness steps are also provided, which can control the
brightness of all the 64 LEDs. Thus it provides both software and hardware control
of brightness. It drives common cathode LED display. It provides 100MHz serial
interface.

The LED driver has a 16 bit shift register. Input signals are CLK, DIN, and LOAD.
Serial data at DIN, sent in 16-bit packets, is shifted into the internal 16-bit shift
register with each rising edge of CLK regardless of the state of LOAD. The data is
then latched into either the digit or control registers on the rising edge of
LOAD/CS. LOAD/CS must go high concurrently with or after the 16th rising clock
edge, but before the next rising clock edge or data will be lost. Data at DIN is
propagated through the shift register and appears at DOUT 16. 5 clock cycles
later. Data is clocked out on the falling edge of CLK.

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Specifications:
Operating Supply Voltage: 5V
Shutdown Supply Current: 150μA
Operating Supply Current: 330 mA
ISEG : -40mA
Resistor (RSET)

The MAX7219 allows display brightness to be controlled with an external resistor

(RSET) connected between V+ and ISET. It is used to set the peak segment
current. The peak current sourced from the segment drivers is nominally 100
times the current entering ISET. Its minimum value should be 9.53kΩ,
which typically sets the segment current at 40mA. Display brightness can also be
controlled digitally by using the intensity register. Digital control of display
brightness is provided by an internal pulse-width modulator, which is controlled
by the lower nibble of the intensity register. The modulator scales the average
segment current in 16 steps from a maximum of 31/32 down to 1/32 of the peak
current set by RSET .

Design:

MAX7219 can drive 64 single LEDs. A multicolour led is equal to 3 single LEDs.
Thus two MAX7219 is used to drive a 4 x 4 LED module. Each MAX7219 has 8
segment lines (SEG Dp through SEG G) to control the anode (horizontal) lines of
the display and 8 digit lines (DIG0 through DIG7) to control the cathode (vertical)
lines. Here one MAX7219 is used to control the red and green LEDs which have a
common cathode. Another MAX7219 is used to control the two blue LEDs. Only 4
digit lines of an LED driver are used.

The current value is to be set at 20mA which is the safe value for the LED. This is
provided by selecting a resistance equal to 22K.

For the expansion of the display, cascading of the MAX7219s is done. This is done
by connecting LOAD and CLK inputs of all the devices together and connecting
DOUT to DIN on adjacent devices. DOUT is a CMOS logic-level output that easily
drives DIN of successively cascaded parts.

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26
PCB Design
The software used for circuit design is EAGLE. The program consists of three main
modules: Layout Editor,
Schematic Editor, Auto router which is embedded in a single user interface.
Therefore there is no need for
converting net lists between schematics and layouts. Its General features are:
_ online Forward- and Back-Annotation
_ context sensitive help function
_ no hardware copy protection
_ multiple windows for board, schematic and library
_ powerful User Language

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_ integrated text editor
_ available for Windows und Linux Layout Editor has following features
_ maximum drawing area 1.6 x 1.6m (64 x 64 inch)
_ resolution 1/10,000mm (0.1 micron)
_ up to 16 signal layers
_ conventional and SMT parts
_ comes with a full set of part libraries
_ easily create your own parts with the fully integrated library editor
_ undo/redo function for ANY editing command, to any depth
_ script files for batch command execution
_ copper pouring
_ cut and paste function for copying entire sections of a drawing
_ design rule check Schematic Editor provides the following features
_ up to 99 sheets in one schematic
_ electrical rule check
_ gate- and pin swap
_ create a board from a schematic with a single command

The PCB design comprises of three sections:

LED ARRAY
It is a double sided PCB with the upper side of PCB comprising of
the anode lines of the LEDs .the cathode lines are laid on the
bottom side of the PCB. The anode ines are horizontal lines. The
cathode lines are vertical lines.The track width is 10 mils. ((for 1A
current). circular pads has been laid with diameter of pad 0.5 mm
greater than hole diameter. Pads are laid for nodes on the top
side and holes for
cathodes and vice versa. Tracks have angles of 45 degree or so
(never 90 degree).
PCB for led array

LED DRIVER CIRCUIT

This is designed as two layers PCB. The tracks never end at 90

degrees the VCC tracks (20 mils) are having greater width than
normal tracks. The ground tracks are of width 40mils.

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Multicolour Display Board
USB INTERFACE

This is single sided PCB with provisions for reset and program
buttons and USB connector. The foot prints of PIC, resistors,
capacitors were provide by the software.

SERIAL COMMUNICATION:

TxD pin of serial port connects to RxD pin of controller via MAX232. And similarly,
RxD pin of serial port connects to the TxD pin of controller through MAX232.

MAX232 has two sets of line drivers for transferring and receiving data. The line
drivers used for transmission are called T1 and T2, where as the line drivers for
receiver are designated as R1 and R2. The connection of MAX232 with computer
and the controller is shown in the circuit diagram.

An important parameter considered while interfacing serial port is the Baud rate
which is the speed at which data is transmitted serially. It is defined as number of
bits transmitted or received per second. It is generally expressed in bps (bits per
second). ATMEGA 16 microcontroller can be set to transfer and receive serial data
at different baud rates using software instructions. Timer1 is used to set the baud
rate of serial communication for the microcontroller. For this purpose, Timer1 is
used in mode2 which is an 8-bit auto reload mode.

Bluetooth:

29
 When you use computers, entertainment systems or telephones, the various pieces and parts of the
systems make up a community of electronic devices. These devices communicate with each other using
a variety of wires, cables, radio signals and infrared light beams, and an even greater variety of
connectors, plugs and protocols.

There are lots of different ways that electronic devices can connect to one another. For example:
 Component cables
 Electrical wires
 Ethernet cables
 WiFi
 Infrared signals

The art of connecting things is becoming more and more complex every day. In this article, we will look at
a method of connecting devices, called Bluetooth, that can streamline the process. A Bluetooth
connection is wireless and automatic, and it has a number of interesting features that can simplify our
daily lives.

The Problem
When any two devices need to talk to each other, they have to agree on a number of points before the
conversation can begin. The first point of agreement is physical: Will they talk over wires, or through some
form of wireless signals? If they use wires, how many are required -- one, two, eight, 25? Once the
physical attributes are decided, several more questions arise:
 How much data will be sent at a time? For instance, serial ports send data 1 bit at a time, while parallel
ports send several bits at once.

30
 How will they speak to each other? All of the parties in an electronic discussion need to know what the
bits mean and whether the message they receive is the same message that was sent. This means
developing a set of commands and responses known as a protocol.

Bluetooth offers a solution to the problem.

Print

How Bluetooth Creates a Connection

Bluetooth takes small-area networking to the next level by removing the need for user intervention and
keeping transmission power extremely low to save battery power. Picture this: You're on your Bluetooth-
enabledcell phone, standing outside the door to your house. You tell the person on the other end of the
line to call you back in five minutes so you can get in the house and put your stuff away. As soon as you
walk in the house, the map you received on your cell phone from your car's Bluetooth-
enabled GPS system is automatically sent to your Bluetooth-enabled computer, because your cell phone
picked up a Bluetooth signal from your PC and automatically sent the data you designated for transfer.
Five minutes later, when your friend calls you back, your Bluetooth-enabled home phone rings instead of
your cell phone. The person called the same number, but your home phone picked up the Bluetooth
signal from your cell phone and automatically re-routed the call because it realized you were home. And
each transmission signal to and from your cell phone consumes just 1 milliwatt of power, so your cell
phone charge is virtually unaffected by all of this activity.

Bluetooth is essentially a networking standard that works at two levels:

 It provides agreement at the physical level -- Bluetooth is a radio-frequency standard.
 It provides agreement at the protocol level, where products have to agree on when bits are sent, how
many will be sent at a time, and how the parties in a conversation can be sure that the message received
is the same as the message sent.

The big draws of Bluetooth are that it is wireless, inexpensive and automatic. There are other ways to get
around using wires, including infrared communication. Infrared (IR) refers to light waves of a lower
frequency than human eyes can receive and interpret. Infrared is used in most television remote
controlsystems. Infrared communications are fairly reliable and don't cost very much to build into a
device, but there are a couple of drawbacks. First, infrared is a "line of sight" technology. For example,
you have to point the remote control at the television or DVD player to make things happen. The second
drawback is that infrared is almost always a "one to one" technology. You can send data between your
desktop computer and your laptop computer, but not your laptop computer and your PDA at the same
time. (SeeHow Remote Controls Work to learn more about infrared communication.)

These two qualities of infrared are actually advantageous in some regards. Because infrared transmitters
and receivers have to be lined up with each other, interference between devices is uncommon. The one-
to-one nature of infrared communications is useful in that you can make sure a message goes only to the
intended recipient, even in a room full of infrared receivers.

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Bluetooth is intended to get around the problems that come with infrared systems. The older Bluetooth
1.0 standard has a maximum transfer speed of 1 megabit per second (Mbps), while Bluetooth 2.0 can
manage up to 3 Mbps. Bluetooth 2.0 is backward-compatible with 1.0 devices.

Let's find out how Bluetooth networking works.

WHY IS IT CALLED BLUETOOTH?
Harald Bluetooth was king of Denmark in the late 900s. He managed to unite Denmark and part of
Norway into a single kingdom then introduced Christianity into Denmark. He left a large monument, the
Jelling rune stone, in memory of his parents. He was killed in 986 during a battle with his son, Svend
Forkbeard. Choosing this name for the standard indicates how important companies from the Nordic
region (nations including Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland) are to the communications industry,
even if it says little about the way the technology works.
Print

Bluetooth networking transmits data via low-power radio waves. It communicates on a frequency of 2.45
gigahertz (actually between 2.402 GHz and 2.480 GHz, to be exact). This frequency band has been set
aside by international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific and medical devices (ISM).

A number of devices that you may already use take advantage of this same radio-frequency band. Baby
monitors, garage-door openers and the newest generation of cordless phones all make use of
frequencies in the ISM band. Making sure that Bluetooth and these other devices don't interfere with one
another has been a crucial part of the design process.

One of the ways Bluetooth devices avoid interfering with other systems is by sending out very weak
signals of about 1 milliwatt. By comparison, the most powerful cell phones can transmit a signal of 3
watts. The low power limits the range of a Bluetooth device to about 10 meters (32 feet), cutting the
chances of interference between your computer system and your portable telephone or television. Even
with the low power, Bluetooth doesn't require line of sight between communicating devices. The walls in
your house won't stop a Bluetooth signal, making the standard useful for controlling several devices in
different rooms.

Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously. With all of those devices in the same 10-
meter (32-foot) radius, you might think they'd interfere with one another, but it's unlikely. Bluetooth uses a
technique called spread-spectrum frequency hopping that makes it rare for more than one device to be
transmitting on the same frequency at the same time. In this technique, a device will use 79 individual,
randomly chosen frequencies within a designated range, changing from one to another on a regular
basis. In the case of Bluetooth, the transmitters change frequencies 1,600 times every second, meaning
that more devices can make full use of a limited slice of the radio spectrum. Since every Bluetooth
transmitter uses spread-spectrum transmitting automatically, it’s unlikely that two transmitters will be on
the same frequency at the same time. This same technique minimizes the risk that portable phones or
baby monitors will disrupt Bluetooth devices, since any interference on a particular frequency will last only
a tiny fraction of a second.

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When Bluetooth-capable devices come within range of one another, an electronic conversation takes
place to determine whether they have data to share or whether one needs to control the other. The user
doesn't have to press a button or give a command -- the electronic conversation happens automatically.
Once the conversation has occurred, the devices -- whether they're part of a computer system or a stereo
-- form a network. Bluetooth systems create a personal-area network (PAN), or piconet, that may fill a
room or may encompass no more distance than that between the cell phone on a belt-clip and the
headset on your head. Once a piconet is established, the members randomly hop frequencies in unison
so they stay in touch with one another and avoid other piconets that may be operating in the same room.
Let's check out an example of a Bluetooth-connected system.
Print

Bluetooth Piconets

Let's say you have a typical modern living room with typical modern stuff inside. There's an entertainment
system with a stereo, a DVD player, a satellite TV receiver and a television; there's also a cordless
telephone and a personal computer. Each of these systems uses Bluetooth, and each forms its own
piconet to talk between the main unit and peripheral.

The cordless telephone has one Bluetooth transmitter in the base and another in the handset. The
manufacturer has programmed each unit with anaddress that falls into a range of addresses it has
established for a particular type of device. When the base is first turned on, it sends radio signals asking
for a response from any units with an address in a particular range. Since the handset has an address in
the range, it responds, and a tiny network is formed. Now, even if one of these devices should receive a
signal from another system, it will ignore it since it's not from within the network. The computer and
entertainment system go through similar routines, establishing networks among addresses in ranges
established by manufacturers. Once the networks are established, the systems begin talking among
themselves. Each piconet hops randomly through the available frequencies, so all of the piconets are
completely separated from one another.

Now the living room has three separate networks established, each one made up of devices that know
the address of transmitters it should listen to and the address of receivers it should talk to. Since each
network is changing the frequency of its operation thousands of times a second, it's unlikely that any two
networks will be on the same frequency at the same time. If it turns out that they are, then the resulting
confusion will only cover a tiny fraction of a second, and software designed to correct for such errors
weeds out the confusing information and gets on with the network's business.
Print

Cite

Feedback

Bluetooth Security

In any wireless networking setup, security is a concern. Devices can easily grab radio waves out of the
air, so people who send sensitive information over a wireless connection need to take precautions to

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make sure those signals aren't intercepted. Bluetooth technology is no different -- it's wireless and
therefore susceptible to spying and remote access, just like WiFi is susceptible if the network isn't secure.
With Bluetooth, though, the automatic nature of the connection, which is a huge benefit in terms of time
and effort, is also a benefit to people looking to send you data without your permission.

Bluetooth offers several security modes, and device manufacturers determine which mode to include in a
Bluetooth-enabled gadget. In almost all cases, Bluetooth users can establish "trusted devices" that can
exchange data without asking permission. When any other device tries to establish a connection to the
user's gadget, the user has to decide to allow it. Service-level security and device-level security work
together to protect Bluetooth devices from unauthorized data transmission. Security methods include
authorization and identification procedures that limit the use of Bluetooth services to the registered user
and require that users make a conscious decision to open a file or accept a data transfer. As long as
these measures are enabled on the user's phone or other device, unauthorized access is unlikely. A user
can also simply switch his Bluetooth mode to "non-discoverable" and avoid connecting with other
Bluetooth devices entirely. If a user makes use of the Bluetooth network primarily for synching devices at
home, this might be a good way to avoid any chance of a security breach while in public.

Still, early cell-phone virus writers have taken advantage of Bluetooth's automated connection process to
send out infected files. However, since most cell phones use a secure Bluetooth connection that requires
authorization and authentication before accepting data from an unknown device, the infected file typically
doesn't get very far. When the virus arrives in the user's cell phone, the user has to agree to open it and
then agree to install it. This has, so far, stopped most cell-phone viruses from doing much damage.
SeeHow Cell-phone Viruses Work to learn more.

Other problems like "bluejacking," "bluebugging" and "Car Whisperer" have turned up as Bluetooth-
specific security issues. Bluejacking involves Bluetooth users sending a business card (just a text
message, really) to other Bluetooth users within a 10-meter (32-foot) radius. If the user doesn't realize
what the message is, he might allow the contact to be added to his address book, and the contact can
send him messages that might be automatically opened because they're coming from a known
contact.Bluebugging is more of a problem, because it allows hackers to remotely access a user's phone
and use its features, including placing calls and sending text messages, and the user doesn't realize it's
happening. The Car Whisperer is a piece of software that allows hackers to send audio to and receive
audio from a Bluetooth-enabled car stereo. Like a computer security hole, these vulnerabilities are an
inevitable result of technological innovation, and device manufacturers are releasing firmware upgrades
that address new problems as they arise.

Embedded C:
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 An embedded system is an application that contains at least one
programmable computer and which is used by individuals who are, in the main,
unaware that the system is computer-based.

Having decided to use an AVR processor as the basis of your embedded

system, the next key decision that needs to be made is the choice of
programming language. In order to identify a suitable language for embedded
systems, we might begin by making the following observations:

 Computers (such as microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP chips) only

accept instructions in ‘machine code’ (‘object codes’). Machine code is, by
definition, in the language of the computer, rather than that of the
programmer. Interpretation of the code by the programmer is difficult and
error prone.
 All software, whether in assembly, C, C++, Java or Ada must ultimately be
translated into machine code in order to be executed by the computer.
 Embedded processors – like the AVR – have limited processor power and
very limited memory available: the language used must be efficient.
 The language chosen should be in common use.

Summary of C language Features:

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It is ‘mid-level’, with ‘high-level’ features (such as support for functions and
modules), and ‘low-level’ features (such as good access to hardware via pointers).

 It is very efficient.
 It is popular and well understood.
 Even desktop developers who have used only Java or C++ can soon
understand C syntax.
 Good, well-proven compilers are available for every embedded processor
(8-bit to 32-bit or more).

Basic C program structure:

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//- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

//Basic blank C program that does nothing

// Includes

//- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

#include <avr/io.h> // SFR declarations

Void main (void)

While (1);

Body of the loop // Infinite loop

} // match the braces

CONTINUITY TEST:

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 In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged components,
or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".

Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a
simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends
belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the
"right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.

This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and
rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep the
multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground.
We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is continuation
then you will hear the beep sound.

POWER ON TEST:

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 This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to
the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. Remember that this test
is performed without microcontroller. Firstly, we check the output of the transformer, whether
we get the required 12 v AC voltage.

Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the
controller. We check for the input to the voltage regulator i.e., are we getting an input of 12v and
an output of 5v. This 5v output is given to the microcontrollers’ 10 th pin. Hence we check for the
voltage level at 10th pin. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In
this way we can assure that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.

Advantage:

 Wireless Operation
 Bluetooth Connection – very less noise
 Multi Input Facility

Disadvantage:

 Yet to develop a lot of drawbacks in this technology

Bibliography

The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems

-Muhammad Ali Mazidi

Janice Gillispie Mazidi

The 8051 Micro controller Architecture, Programming & Applications

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 -Kenneth J.Ayala

Fundamentals Of Micro processors and Micro computers

-B.Ram

Micro processor Architecture, Programming & Applications

-Ramesh S. Gaonkar

Electronic Components

-D.V. Prasad

WEB Resources:

www.atmel.com
www.8051projects.com

www.microsoftsearch.com
www.geocities.com
www.alldatasheet.com
www.bioenable.com

1. Elements of electronic engineering by N N Rao.

2. www.wikipedia.com

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/zener_diode

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/diode

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/potentiometer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capacitor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/relay

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