SYNTAX FOR SQL.

To connect:

SQL> CONNECT hr/hr;

To view the tables(entity) available :

All records in the table.

SQL> SELECT * FROM tab;

To show the attributes in an entity(table)

Structure of the table.

SQL> DESCRIBE [the entity];

e.g SQL> DESCRIBE employees;

To view all details in an entity:

SQL> SELECT * FROM [entity];

E.g. SQL> SELECT * FROM employees;

To view specific details in an entity:

SQL> SELECT attribute, attribute, attribute FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, email FROM employees;

To change the letter case(capital or small letters):

UPPER is for capital lettrs and LOWER is for small letters.

SQL> SELECT UPPER(attribute), LOWER(attribute), LOWER(attribute) FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT UPPER(first_name), LOWER(last_name), LOWER(email) FROM employees;

To rename the heading:

NN represents new name.

SQL> SELECT attribute AS NN, attribute AS NN, attribute AS NN FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name AS name, last_name AS surname, email AS address FROM employees;

To sort data either in ascending or descending order:

Ascending as ASC and descending as DESC.

SQL> SELECT attribute*, attribute FROM entity ORDER BY attribute* {that you are using to sort or
column number} DESC or ASC;
Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees ORDER BY first_name DESC; or

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees ORDER BY 1 ASC;

Comparison operators.

We use WHERE followed by =, >, <, =<, =>, !=

SQL> SELECT attribute, attribute, attribute* FROM entity WHERE attribute* OPERATOR FIGURE or
WORD;

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 7000;

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_id FROM employees WHERE department_id = 100;

USING BETWEEN (must have a range):

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary BETWEEN 8000 AND
15000;

For specific values:

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_id FROM employees WHERE department_id IN

To return specific items.{condition is case sensitive}

SQL> SELECT attribute*, attribute FROM entity WHERE attribute* operator 'item';

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees WHERE first_name = 'John';

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE 'J%'; { starts with J…}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees WHERE first_name like '%n'; {ends with …n}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name from employees WHERE first_name IN ('John', 'Peter'); {both John
and Peter only}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE 'J%' AND salary >
5000; { for two conditions}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE 'Ja%'; {starts with
Ja…}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE '_a%'; { second
letter must be a}

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary, department_id FROM employees WHERE last_name LIKE
'%a' AND department_id IN (30, 100);

To know the number of characters.

SQL> SELECT LENGTH(attribute) FROM entity;

To return items which have specify number of characters:

SQL> SELECT attribute* FROM entity WHERE LENGTH(attribute*) COMPARISON FIGURE;

Eg SQL> SELECT last_name FROM employees WHERE LENGTH(last_name) >= 8;

SQL> select first_name, last_name, commission_pct from employees where commission_pct is null ;

To give values to items that are empty.

Use NVL

SQL> SELECT attribute, NVL (attribute*, FIGURE) FROM employees WHERE attribute* IS NULL;

Eg SQL> SELECT last_name, NVL (commission_pct, .2) FROM employees WHERE commission_pct IS
NULL; {adds .2 to those who didn’t have}

Eg SQL> select first_name, last_name, NVL (commission_pct, .2) from employees ;

To find the sum, average, minimum, maximum, count.

If attribute is only one,

SQL> SELECT SUM(attribute) FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;

If attributes are more than one, use GROUP BY,

SQL> SELECT attribute*, attribute*, SUM(attribute) FROM employees GROUP BY attribute*, attribute*;

Eg SQL> SELECT department_id, job_id, SUM(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department_id,

To return data from different entities.

Use JOIN….BY

INNER JOIN { returns data with matching rows}

OUTTER JOIN{ returns data without matching rows}

Eg using entities: employees and departments:

SQL> SELECT attribute, attribute, attribute FROM entity1 JOIN entity2 USING(attribute common between
the two entities);

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_name FROM employees JOIN departments

SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_name FROM employees INNER JOIN departments
USING(department_id);
SQL> SELECT department_name, first_name, last_name, job_title FROM departments JOIN employees
USING(department_id) JOIN jobs USING(job_id);

To put data from two columns into a single column or add sentence to data in soecific column.

Use CONCAT.

Add sentence to data in soecific column.

SQL> SELECT attribute, CONCAT(attribute, 'sentence to be added’) FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT first_name, CONCAT(email, '@gmail.com') FROM employees;

To put data from two columns into a single column.

SQL> SELECT CONCAT(concat(attribte, ' '), attribute) FROM entity;

Eg SQL> SELECT CONCAT(first_name, last_name), LOWER(CONCAT(email, 'gmail.com')) AS Email FROM

SQL> SELECT CONCAT(CONCAT(first_name, ' '), last_name), LOWER(CONCAT(email, 'gmail.com')) AS

To make figures uniform{ try it out and you will understand}

SQL> SELECT first_name, LPAD(salary, 5, '*') FROM employees; {puts uniformity on left side}

SQL> SELECT first_name, RPAD(salary, 5, '*') FROM employees; {puts uniformity on right side}

To create entity[table], insert attritubes and insert data.

Data types; VARCHAR2, NUMBER, FLOAT, TIMESTAMP, DATE, INTEGER…..

Constraints; PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL, NULL……

SQL> CREATE TABLE entity name (column_name data_type(number of characters) constraint)…….;

Eg SQL> CREATE TABLE department(department_id VARCHAR2(5) PRIMARY KEY, department_name

To add an attribute to an already existing table.

SQL> ALTER TABLE [table name] ADD ([attribute] [data type] [constraint]);

To delete an attribute from an already existing table.

Use DROP.

SQL> ALTER TABLE [table name] DROP COLUMN attribute;

SQL> ALTER TABLE Customer DROP column employee_id;

To add data into the entity.

SQL> INSERT INTO entity ( attribute1, attribute2, attribute3) VALUES (‘value1’, ‘value 2’, ‘value3’);

Eg SQL> INSERT INTO customer (customer_id, first_name, last_name, email, phone_number) VALUES (2,
'Joshua', 'Ejok', '[email protected]', '0771654786');

Eg SQL> insert into customer (customer_id, first_name, last_name, email, phone_number) values (1,
'Lawrence', 'Asizo', '[email protected]', '0760567776');

Eg SQL> INSERT INTO customer (customer_id, first_name, last_name, email, phone_number) VALUES (3,
'Sarah', 'Butenga', '[email protected]', '0701664757');

To correct data already existing entity.

SQL> UPDATE [table_name] SET column_name = ‘new value’ WHERE [attribte = position of the item];

Eg SQL> UPDATE customer SET phone_number = ‘+256771653427’ WHERE customer_id = 1;

To delete data from already existing entity.

SQL> DELETE FROM [table_name] WHERE [attribte = position of the item];

Eg SQL> DELETE FROM customer WHERE customer_id = 1;

SQL> connect as sysdba;

Enter user-name: hr

Enter password:

Connected.

SQL> create user Aimers identified by aimers;

SQL> grant connect, resource to Aimers;

Grant succeeded.

SQL> connect Aimers/aimers;

Connected.