VIKAS SAXENA, PGT CS

CHAPTER 1 – BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

COMPUTER

- A computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of operations in accordance with a set of instructions
called program.

- Computers can do a lot of different tasks such as playing games, railway reservation, weather forecasting, error
detection, and controlling the flight of a space aircraft etc.

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION

- Computer organisation refers to logical structure of a computer describing how its components are connected to
one another; how they affect one another’s functioning, and contribute to overall performance of the computer.

- Computers follow the ‘IPO’ principle i.e. Input  Process  Output (a certain input is processed to generate
specific output)

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 INPUT UNIT

- The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer. Examples of input devices are: keyboard,
mouse, optical character reader (OCR) etc.

- The input unit is responsible for taking input and converting it into computer understandable fo rm (the binary code).
- The input unit is comprised of different input devices that take the input in different forms and pass then in digital
form to CPU for processing. Some common input devices are:

1. Keyboard: typewriter like device which is used to type in the letters, digits and commands.
2. Mouse: It is a pointing device with either a roller on its base or some laser mechanism. Mouse controls movement
of pointer (also called mouse pointer) on screen.
3. Microphone (Mic): We can send sound input to computer through a special input device called microphone or mic
in short. A mic converts the sound received into computer’s format, which is called digitized
sound or digital audio.
OUTPUT UNIT
- The Output unit is formed from the output devices attached to the computer. Examples of output devices are: Printer,
Monitor, Speaker etc.

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- The output coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals which needs conversion in some form which
can be easily understood by human beings i.e. characters, graphical or audio visual. This function of conversion is
performed by output units.
- Some popular output devices are:

1. Monitor: It is the most common form of output from a computer. It displays information in a similar way to that shown
on a television screen. The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels.
2. Printers: These are the devices that deliver information by means of printed characters on paper.
3. Speakers: Speakers receive the sound in form of electric current from the sound card and then convert it to sound
format audible to user.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

- The CPU is the control Centre (brain) for a computer. It guides, directs and govern its performance.
- The CPU has three main components: Control Unit (CU) , Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

- The ALU performs all the four arithmetical (+ , - , * , /) and some logical (< , > , = , <= , >= ) operations. When two
numbers are required to be added , these numbers are sent from memor y to ALU where addition takes place and the
result is put back in the memory.

- For logical operations also , the numbers to be compared are sent from memory to ALU where the comparison takes
place and the result is returned to the memory. The result of a logical operation is either TRUE or FALSE.

Control Unit (CU)

- The CU controls and guides the interpretation, flow and manipulation of all data and information.
- It controls the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory to output devices.

Registers

- These are small units of data holding places.

- The CPU uses registers to temporarily hold some important processing information during the time the processing is
taking place.

THE MEMORY

- The memory of a computer is often called main memory or primary memory. But the main memory of computer is
temporary (volatile), it cannot remember anything after it is switched off.

- The memory of a computer is called cell and each of these cells is further broken down into smaller parts known as
bits. A bit means a binary digit i.e., either 0 or 1. A bit is an elementary unit of the memory.

A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 4 bits is called a nibble.

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Units of Computer Memory Measurements

- Since the computer’s main memory (primary memory) is temporary, secondary memory space is needed to store data
and information permanently for later use. Some most common secondary storage devices are Hard disk, CD-drive etc.

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware

- Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the computer i.e., the components that can be seen
and touched.
- Input devices, output devices, CPU, hard disk etc. are examples of computer hardware.

Software

- Software represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system and make the hardware
run. Software can be classified broadly into three catego
- ries:
1. Operating System
2. Language Processor
3. Application Software

Peripherals

The Peripherals are the devices that surround the system unit e.g. the keyboard, mouse, speakers, printers, monitors etc.
are peripherals.

MAIN MEMORY

- Main memory is also called internal memory or primary memory.

- Main memory holds the data and programs needed at that instant by CPU.
- The CPU reads the data and programs kept on secondary storage into main memory, temporarily.

PARTS OF MAIN MEMORY

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

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2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

3. Cache Memory

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

- RAM is a volatile memory, i.e. data stored on RAM will erased when the power is switched off.
- In this memory both read and write operations can take place.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

- ROM is a non- volatile memory. The data stored on ROM is not erased when the power is switched off, i.e.
it is permanent.
- In this memory only read operation takes place.
- This memory is held inside the processor and is used to hold data that can’t be changed by the user.

CACHE MEMORY

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- It is placed between CPU and Main memory.
- It is fast and small memory which stores the copy of data which is frequently used from main memory.
- When a user want to use that part of data, then cache which lies between the CPU and main memory,
sends the desired data instead of main memory.

TYPES OF SOFTWARES

System Software Application Software

Operating System Language Processor

System Software

- The software that controls internal computer operations (like reading data from input devices, transmitting
processed information to the output devices, converting data to computer understandable form etc.) is known as
System software.

OPERATING SYSTEM

- An operating system is a program which acts as an interface between a user and the hardware.

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- An operating system controls all other components of the computer system. It also performs following important
functions:

(i) It loads necessary programs (into the computer memory) which are required for proper computer functioning.
(ii) Coordinates how programs work with the CPU, keyboard, mouse and other hardware as well as with other
software.
(iii) Manages the way information is stored on and retrieved from disks.

- Types of OS: Single user OS , Multiuser OS, Time sharing OS , Real Time OS, Multiprocessing OS, Distributed OS etc.
- Examples of OS : Microsoft Windows , Linux(for Desktops and Laptops), Android,ioS(for mobiles)

LANGUAGE PROCESSOR

- As programmers prefer to write their programs in one of the High Level Languages(HLLs) because it is much easier to
code in such languages.
- However, the computer does not understand any language other than its own machine language (binary language)
therefore, it becomes necessary to process an HLL program so as to make it understandable to the computer.
- So Language Processor does the work of converting the HLL into the machine language. The types of language
processors are :

1. Assembler: This language processor converts the program written in assembly language into machine language.

2. Interpreter: This language processor converts an HLL program into machine language by converting and executing
it line by line. If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume
until the error is rectified.

3. Compiler: It also converts the HLL program into machine language but the conversion manner is different. It converts
the entire HLL program in one go, and reports all the errors at the end of the program along with the line numbers.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

- This type of software pertains to one specific application. For instance, a software that can perform railway
reservation functions cannot prepare result for a school.

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 STORAGE DEVICES (SECONDARY MEMORY DEVICES)

- Since primary memory has limited storage capacity and is not permanent, secondary storage devices
are used to store large amount of data permanently.
- Most common storage devices are :

1. Hard Disks
2. Compact Disks (CDs)
3. Digital Video Disks (DVDs)
4. Pen Drives
5. Blu-Ray Disc

HARD DISKS

- Store information on one or more circular platters (or disks) which are continually spinning.
These rotating disks are coated with a magnetic material and stacked with space between them.
- Information is stored on surface of rotating disks by magnetic heads. Information is recorded in bands,
which are known as track.
- The tracks on the disk surface are divided into invisible segments known as Sectors. It is the area on
which information actually gets stored.

- Now days, hard disks comes in 250 GB to 2 TB capacity range.

COMPACT DISKS (CDs)

- Optical media, relatively cheap, storage capacity of up to 700 MB.

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- Three types of CDs are :

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only Memory)

- used to record information including text, graphics or audio on CD, e.g. software, games etc.
- cannot used to store data.

2. CD-R (Compact Disk-Recordable)

- data can be recorded on these disks only once.
- allows to write one part of the disk one time and another part at a later time.
- data once written cannot be erased.

3. CD-RW (Compact Disk-Rewritable)

- Erasable disk, can write on multiple times.

DIGITAL VIDEO DISKS (DVDs)

- Optical storage device, looks same as compact disc , but able to hold about 15 times more data and transfer
to computer about 20 times as fast as CDs.
- Three types of DVDs are :
1. DVD – ROM (Digital Video Disk – Read Only Memory)
- capable of storing 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data.
- attractive for storing large amount of data.
2. DVD- R (Digital Video Disk – Recordable)
- similar to CD-R’s , allows user to write on the disc once but read it many times.
3. DVD – RW (Digital Video Disk – Rewritable)
- can erase and read many times.

PEN DRIVES – FLASH MEMORIES

- Pen drives are also called Thumb drives, and are flash memories.
- Flash is a solid state memory, i.e. it has no moving parts unlike hard disks.

BLU – RAY DISC

- Successor to DVD.

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- Name comes from the face that a blue laser reads from and writes to the disc rather than the red laser of
DVDs.

COMMUNICATION BUS

- Collection of wires that transmit binary numbers, one bit per wire.
- Three types of buses are: Address Bus ,Data Bus, and Control Bus.

ADDRESS BUS (16 Lines)

- Carries memory addresses. It has one wire for each bit, therefore 16 bits = 16 wires.
- Memory address carried by this bus alerts memory to open designated box. Binary data can then be put in
or taken out from there.

DATA BUS (8 Lines)

- It carries data in binary form between the processor and other external units, such as memory.
- Its typical size is 8 or 16 bits.

CONTROL BUS

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 - Consist of various lines which have specific functions for coordinating and controlling CPU operations.
- E.g. control line may specify whether memory is being written to (data stores in memory) or read from
(data taken out from memory).

PORTS

- Are used to connect external devices to the computer.

TYPES OF RAM

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

2. Static RAM

DYNAMIC RAM

- It consist of a transistor and capacitor that is capable of storing an electric charge.

- Depending upon transistor, the capacitor either contains no charge (0 bit) or does not hold a charge (1 bit).
- It provides volatile storage, i.e. contents are lost in the event of power failure.
- It is having memory access time ranging from 20 to 70 nanoseconds.

(memory access time: The amount of time taken to produce data required from memory, from start of
access until the availability of data is called memory access time.

Drawback of DRAMs: the capacitor used, will loose charge over a period of time and can retain data for barely
a thousandth of a second. Therefore, the memory controller needs to refresh the memory contents as many as
thousand times a second, which is called memory refreshing. This refreshing consumes precious processor time.

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STATIC RAM

- It is also volatile but do not require memory refreshing to retain the stored data.
- It consists of internal flip-flops that store the binary information.
- It takes more memory space for a given storage capacity than DRAM but have faster access time.

TYPES OF ROM

1. PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory)

- Can be programmed to record information using a facility known as PROM-programmer.
- Once programmed, the recorded information cannot be changed i.e., PROM becomes same as ROM.

2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory(EPROM)

- Can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed to record different information using a special PROM-
program facility.
- Erasure is achieved by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light.
- When EPROM is in use, information can only be “read” and the information remains on the chip until it is
erased.

3. Electrically Erasable PROM(EEPROM)

- can be programmed and erased by electric signals.
- Information loaded in this memory can be retained for many years without any power supplied.
- One of its application is as a back-up to RAM memory whose contents are lost in a power failure.

CATEGORIES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software can be further subdivided into four categories:

1. Packages
2. Utilities
3. Customised Software/Business Software
4. Developer Tools

PACKAGES

- The general application software that are designed in such a manner that may be used by individual users in the
manner it suits their needs and requirements, are called Packages.

- Some common categories of general application software (packages) are:

(i) Word Processing Software

(ii) Spreadsheets
(iii) Database Management Systems
(iv) Desktop Publishing Software
(v) Graphics, multimedia and presentation applications.

UTILITIES

Utilities are those programs that ensure the smooth functioning of the computer. These are meant to assist your
computer. Some important utilities are:

1. Text Editor

- This utility program is used for creating, editing text files.

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 - Using this program any text matter can be typed and saved on a disk file.

2. Backup Utility

- This utility program facilitates the backing up of disk.

- Back up means duplicating the disk information so that in case of any damage or data loss, this backed up data
may be used.

3. Compression Utility

- This utility program facilitates compression of files.

- Large files can be compressed so that they take less storage space.

4. Disk Defragmenter
- This utility program attempts to minimise the fragmentation on your disk.
- A file is fragmented when it becomes too large for your computer to store in a single location on a disk. So,
Computer splits the file up and store it in pieces. You can use fragmented files, but it takes your computer longer
to access them.

- Disk Defragmenter speeds up disk access by rearranging the files and free space on your computer, so that files
are stored in contiguous units and free space is consolidated in one contiguous block.

5. AntiVirus Software

- Antivirus software scans your disk for viruses (programs that make computer behave abnormally) and removes
them.

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 CUSTOMIZED SOFTWARE

- This type of software is tailor made software according to a user’s requirements. This software is developed to
meet all the requirements specified by the user.
- Examples: Inventory Management System (for managing inventory details of a company), payroll system (for
handling payroll of a company’s employees) etc.

SOFTWARE LIBRARIES

- When programmers develop software and programs, they have a prewritten set of code/functions available to do
a variety of tasks, which they can use directly in their code . These predefined sets of codes are called software
libraries.

Transition from Calculator to Computer and Smart Devices

- Calculator is a handheld device used to perform basic math operations, while a computer is a multipurpose device,
which can perform complex calculations.
- Calculator can carry out one operation at a time, computers, with the help of series of instructions called computer
programs can carry out the entire task without assistance.

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Comparing Computers and Smart Devices

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1940-56) – Vacuum Tubes

Key Features:
1. Big and clumsy computers that used vacuum tubes.
2. Large air conditioners were necessary because the computers generated lot of heat.
3. Programming in machine language.
4. Uses stored program concept.

Examples:

1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)

2. EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
Drawbacks:
1. Very large space requirement.
2. High electricity consumption.
3. Generated a lot of heat.
4. Slow
5. Expensive

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SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1956-63) – Transistors

Key Features:
1. Transistors replaces vacuum tubes.
2. Smaller in size compared to 1st generation computers.
3. Generated less heat.
4. Lower electricity consumption.
5. More reliable and faster.
6. Programming in machine language and assembly language.

Examples:

1. IBM 1400
2. 7000 Series

Drawbacks:

1. Costly
2. Frequent maintenance required.
3. Not a general purpose computers.

THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1964-71) – Integrated Circuits (IC)

Key Features:
1. Integrated Circuits were used.
2. Computers smaller, faster and more reliable.
3. Lower power consumption.
4. High Level languages(HLLs) developed.

Examples:

1. IBM 360 Series

2. IBM 370/168
3. ICL-1900 Series

FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1971-Present) – Microprocessors

In 1971 Intel created the first microprocessor (a special chip developed for computer memory).

Key Features:
1. Large and Very Large Integrated Circuits (LSI and VLSI)
2. Portable computers developed.
3. Secondary storage with high storage capacity developed.
4. Computer cost came down rapidly.
5. Smaller, Faster and Reliable.

Examples:

1. Pentium (P5, Dual core, Quad Core etc.)

2. AMD
3. Apple Macintosh
FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (Present & Beyond) – Artificial Intelligence
Key Features:
1. Parallel Processing – many processors are grouped to function as one large group processor.
2. Superconductors – It is a conductor through which electricity can travel without any resistance resulting in faster
transfer of information between the components of a computer.
3. Applications in defence systems, controlling route of a missile, translation of documents from one language to
another.

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TROUBLESHOOTING COMPUTER OPERATIONS

While working on your computers, you may encounter certain problems, e.g. your system won’t boot, or boot
repeatedly or heats up or shows a blue screen. For such problems, you should know basic troubleshoot techniques.

General Tips

1. Always check the cables of your computers.

2. Try to isolate the problem. For example, if you can’t get the cursor to move on the screen, try to determine if the
issue is with the mouse.
3. Try restarting your computer.
4. If your computer gives you error messages, be sure to write them down as much information as possible.
5. Remember the steps you’ve taken, or write them down.

Some Troubleshooting Techniques involving Computer Parts or operating System

1. Program Runs Slowly or Isn’t Working Right

(i) Try to close the program and then re-open it.
(ii) You can also shut down your computer, wait a few seconds, and boot it up again.
(iii) Check for updates to the software.

2. Problem Starting or Shutting Down the Computer

There can be multiple reasons behind this.
(A) Power Button Will Not Start Computer
(i) Check the power cord to confirm that it is plugged in securely into the back of the computer case.
(ii) If you are using laptop, then make sure that the battery should be charged.

(B) “Non-System Disk or Disk Error” Message

If you get this message when you boot up your computer, it usually means there is a CD, DVD, USB flash drive,
or some other external storage device in your computer, which is interfering with your computer’s booting
process. Remove the disk from the drive and restart the computer.

(C) Windows Shutting Down message will not disappear

Sometimes Windows will freeze during the shutdown process and “Windows is shutting Down” message
screen will stay active on your screen. To finish shutting down the computer, press and hold the power button
for about 10 seconds or until the computer shuts down.

3. Computer Begins Randomly Rebooting or Crashing

(i) Check for overheating. Make sure the vents in the case are not blocked.
(ii) Update your antivirus software and scan for viruses.
(iii) If problems persist, call your maintenance engineer.

4. Problems with the Monitor

(A) No picture on the Monitor
(i) Confirm the computer is turned on.
(ii) Check the brightness control, located on your monitor or your keyboard, and make sure it is not set
too low.
(iii) Check the power cord connected to the Monitor.
(B) Monitor goes blank periodically
(i) You may have the screensaver enabled. If the screen saver is enabled, just move your mouse back and
forth and your original screen will appear.

5. No Sound/Speaker Problem
(i) Ensure that the sound card driver is installed on your computer and is working properly.
(ii) Check the volume control on your computer.
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(iii) Make sure the speakers are turned on, if using external speakers.
(iv) Make sure external speakers are connected to the correct audio port (usually green) or a USB port.

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