Module-II

Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production:

They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are biodegradable
and can be produced from renewable resources.
Preparation of cellulose-based water filters
Preparation of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
1. Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will depend on
the desired properties such as strength, porosity, specific requirements and chemical resistance.
Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and wood fibers.
2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces, washing it to
remove impurities, and drying it for use.
3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as a mesh or a
support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.
5. Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its properties, such as
increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.
6. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a means to attach it
to a water source and to collect the filtered water.
7. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired specifications, such as
filtration efficiency and flow rate.

Properties of cellulose-based water filter

High Porosity: efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
Biodegradability: made from cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared to
synthetic polymer filters.
Cost-effective: more affordable than traditional synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a
wider range of consumers and communities.
Renewable resource: cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.
Good mechanical strength: allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over
time.
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Chemical resistance: resistant to most acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water
treatment applications.
Large surface area: enhances their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter
replacement.
Advantages of cellulose based water filters
 Cellulose-based water filters are ecofriendly in nature are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment compared to synthetic
polymer filters .
 Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic polymer filters,
making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and communities.
 Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them to efficiently
remove impurities and contaminants from water.
 Versatile: Cellulose-based water filters are versatile and can be produced in different sizes and
shapes to fit specific needs.
 Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength
 Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals, including acids and bases, and can be
used in a wide range of water treatment applications.
 Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances their filtration capabilities
and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.
Limitations of cellulose based water filters
 Cellulose-based water filters have low resistance to high temperature and can lose their structural
integrity when exposed to high temperatures.
 Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants such as heavy metals, from water.
 Cellulose-based water filters have a limited lifespan and may need to be replaced more frequently
Compared to synthetic polymer filters.
 Cellulose-based water filters may be difficult to sterilize effectively, increasing the risk of
contamination.
 Cellulose-based water filters may clog easily when exposed to high levels of contaminants, reducing
their filtration efficiency and requiring frequent replacement.
 Cellulose-based water filters may affect the taste of water by absorbing or releasing certain
chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the purified water.
Cellulose material used in house hold water filters The cellulose material commonly used in
household water filters is cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate is a synthetic form of cellulose that has
properties such as good chemical resistance, high porosity, and high flow rate, making it suitable for
use in household water filters. Additionally, cellulose acetate is also a low-cost material, making it
accessible for use in household applications.

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Bioplastics
Bioplastics are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and
oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc.
Biodegradable polymers, also called as bioplastics, are the polymers which are degraded easily by
biological agents like enzymes or microorganisms. They are derived from renewable resources, such as
plants or microorganisms. Using of bioplastics can address the environmental problems of plastic
waste.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHAs are Biodegradable and biocompatible polyester produced by micro
organisms-bacetria and fungi. The production of PHA typically involves fermentation processes using
microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, or algae. These microorganisms are engineered or selected for
their ability to convert renewable carbon sources into PHA.
They are made from renewable resources, such as sugar and cornstarch, and are considered to be an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.
They can be either thermoplastic or elastomeric materials, with melting points ranging from 40 to
180°C.
Characteristics of PHAs :
• Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can break down into water and carbon dioxide,
reducing their impact on the environment.
• Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical devices, such as sutures and
implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body.
• Renewable Source: PHA can be produced from renewable resources such as sugars, vegetable oils,
and agricultural by-products. This renewable feedstock reduces dependence on non-renewable fossil
fuels.
• Water insolubility, relative resistant to hydrolytic degradation,
• Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques, such as
injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion.
• Mechanical properties: PHAs have similar mechanical properties to traditional petroleum- based
plastics, making them suitable for various applications.
Applications of PHAs are:
• They are used in medical devices, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.
• In various industries, including packaging, agriculture, textiles, and personal care products.
• They can be used to produce films, Agricultural Mulch Films, coatings, fibers, and molded products.

Polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA)

PLA is an environmental friendly bioplastic obtained from polymerization of lactic acid. Lactic acid is
obtained from fermentation of renewable carbon resources, such as corn starch, sugarcane, or other
plant-based feedstocks using lactic acid bacteria. The process is known as lactic acid fermentation.

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PLA is a polyester (polymer containing the ester group) made with two possible monomers or building
blocks: lactic acid, and lactide. Lactic acid can be produced by the bacterial fermentation of a
carbohydrate source under controlled conditions

• PLA is biodegradable under appropriate conditions and is generally regarded as food safe since it
decomposes back into its lactic acid building blocks, which are non-toxic.
• However, it must be noted that PLA does not degrade naturally in the environment and must be
composted under a special set of conditions such as a temperature of at least 60 °C, and humidity of
90 % which must be maintained over a period of 60 to 90 days.
• PLA decomposes into carbon dioxide, lactic acid, and water.
Properties of PLA as bioplastic
• PLA is biodegradable and it can be broken down by natural processes. PLA can be easily degraded
into carbon dioxide, water, and organic matter. This biodegradability reduces the environmental
impact by accumulation of plastic waste.
• PLA is derived from renewable resources, such as agricultural crops, which makes it a sustainable
alternative to conventional petroleum-based plastics.
• PLA is a versatile in terms of its physical and mechanical properties. It can be produced in various
forms, including films, fibers, foams, and injection-molded products.
• PLA can be transparent or opaque, rigid or flexible, and it can be modified with additives to
achieve specific properties.
Applications:
PLA finds application in a wide range of industries and products. It is commonly used for packaging
materials, disposable cutlery, food containers, disposable cups, and single-use bags. PLA is also
utilized in textiles, 3D printing, and biomedical applications, such as sutures, drug delivery systems,
and tissue engineering scaffolds.

Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis:

A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA that transfects a specific
antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism to stimulate an immune response against
the pathogen.

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DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES:
Rabies is a preventable viral disease most often transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal. The
rabies virus infects the central nervous system of mammals, ultimately causing disease in the brain and
death. DNA vaccines for rabies represent a promising approach to rabies prevention, offering
advantages such as stability, ease of production, and safety.
Mechanism:
DNA Encoding Rabies Antigen: The DNA vaccine contains a small circular piece of DNA that
encodes specific antigens from the rabies virus. These antigens, typically the rabies virus glycoprotein
(RVG), are crucial for eliciting an immune response.
Intramuscular Injection: The vaccine is administered via injection into muscle tissue. Once inside the
muscle cells, the DNA is taken up and begins the process of antigen expression.
Antigen Production: Within the host cells, the DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then
translated into the rabies virus antigen protein(s). The antigen proteins are then presented on the surface
of the host cells.
Immune Response Activation: The presence of rabies virus antigens triggers the host immune system.
This leads to the activation of both cellular and humoral immune responses, which are essential for
fighting off rabies virus infection.
Production of Vaccine:
Antigen Selection: Researchers identify and select
specific antigens from the rabies virus that are most
effective at inducing an immune response. The RVG
protein is a common choice due to its role in viral
attachment and entry into host cells.
Plasmid Vector Construction: The DNA sequence
encoding the selected rabies antigens is cloned into a
plasmid vector. This vector serves as a delivery vehicle
for the DNA vaccine.
Plasmid-carrying gene is grown in large
quantities(Amplified) by transferring it to bacteria.

Purification: The recombinant plasmid DNA is purified using techniques like alkaline lysis to remove
impurities and ensure a high-quality vaccine product.
Formulation: The purified DNA vaccine is formulated into a suitable delivery system, such as a saline
solution or lipid nanoparticles, to facilitate its administration and uptake by host cells.
RNA Vaccines for Covid-19:
 RNA vaccines have played a crucial role in fighting the COVID-19.
 These vaccines were developed and deployed with remarkable speed and effectiveness to fight
COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 virus is the one that causes COVID-19.

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 RNA vaccines are specifically messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines.
 Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a molecule that provides cells with instructions for making
proteins. mRNA vaccines contain the instructions for making the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. This
protein is found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19.
The design and mechanism of action of mRNA vaccine is described below:
1. mRNA vaccines have a small piece of genetic material called messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA
genetic sequence encoding the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This sequence is used as the
template for generating the mRNA vaccine.
2. The mRNA encoding the spike protein is formulated into lipid nanoparticles. These nanoparticles protect
the mRNA and help deliver it into cells once the vaccine is administered.
3. When mRNA is injected into the body's cells. Cells take up the lipid nanoparticles containing the
mRNA. Once inside the cell, It instructs the cells to produce the spike protein. This spike protein is
harmless and does not cause the full-blown disease.
4. The spike protein produced by the cells triggers an immune response. The immune system
recognizes the spike protein as foreign and results in an immune response against it. Immune
response is initiated by production of antibodies or by the activation of immune cells.
5. The immune response generated by mRNA vaccines provides protection against COVID-19. If a
vaccinated person is later exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, their immune system recognizes the
spike protein and mounts a rapid and robust response, preventing or minimizing the infection's
severity.

Forensic -DNA Fingerprinting:

DNA fingerprinting is a forensic technique, used to identify individuals and establish biological
relationships based on their unique DNA profiles. This technique is also known as DNA profiling or
genetic fingerprinting. Each individual person exhibits a unique DNA profile and it can be considered
as their genetic "fingerprint." This specific pattern of genetic information can be used to distinguish one
person from another.
The DNA testing process is comprised of four main steps, including extraction, quantitation,
amplification, and capillary electrophoresis.
• Sample collection: Collecting a sample of cells, from various sources, such as skin, hair, or
blood cells, which contain DNA.
• DNA extraction: Once the DNA sample is collected, the DNA is extracted from the cells and
purified. This typically involves breaking open cells to release DNA and removing proteins and
other cellular components.
• PCR Amplification: Perform polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify specific regions of
the DNA known as short tandem repeats (STRs) or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs).
These regions are useful for identification purposes

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 • Gel Electrophoresis: The enzymes produced fragments of varying lengths that were sorted by
placing them on a gel and then subjecting the gel to an electric current (electrophoresis): the
shorter the fragment, the more quickly it moved toward the positive pole (anode).
• The sorted double-stranded DNA fragments were then subjected to a blotting technique in
which they were split into single strands and transferred to a nylon sheet.
• The fragments underwent autoradiography in which they were exposed to DNA probes—pieces
of synthetic DNA that were made radioactive and that bound to the minisatellites.
• A piece of X-ray film was then exposed to the fragments, and a dark mark was produced at any
point where a radioactive probe had become attached. The resultant pattern of marks could then
be analyzed.

Isolating the DNA.

↓
Digesting the DNA with the
help of restriction
endonuclease enzymes.
↓
Separating the digested fragments
as per the fragment size by the
process of electrophoresis.
↓
Blotting the separated fragments
onto synthetic membranes like
nylon.
↓
Hybridising the fragments using
labelled VNTR probes.
↓
Analysing the hybrid fragments
using autoradiography.

Importance of DNA fingerprinting in forensics

1. Identification of Individuals: DNA fingerprinting allows forensic scientists to positively identify
individuals based on unique patterns in their DNA, even from trace amounts of biological material
left at a crime scene.
2. Crime Scene Investigations: DNA evidence collected from crime scenes, such as bloodstains, hair
follicles, or saliva, can be analyzed using DNA fingerprinting techniques to link suspects to the
scene or victims.
3. Exoneration of Innocent Individuals: DNA fingerprinting can also be used to exclude innocent
individuals from suspicion or exonerate them if their DNA does not match evidence collected at
the crime scene, helping to prevent wrongful convictions.
4. Resolving paternity and familial relationships.
5. In solving cold cases, exonerating wrongfully convicted individuals, and providing crucial
evidence in court.

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6. Database Management: DNA profiles obtained from crime scene evidence can be stored in
forensic DNA databases, such as CODIS (Combined DNA Index System), to aid in future criminal
investigations by comparing profiles against known offenders.
7. Evidence in Court: DNA fingerprinting results are admissible as evidence in court proceedings and
carry significant weight due to their high degree of reliability and accuracy, strengthening the
prosecution or defense's case.

Proteins in food production

Proteins are one of the three macronutrients, alongside carbohydrates and fats. They are vital for the
growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, as well as for the synthesis of enzymes, hormones, and
antibodies. Proteins are an essential component of the human diet and are commonly consumed as a
source of nutrition. Proteins are made of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein
molecules.
The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein intake varies based on factors such as age, sex,
weight, and activity level. Generally, it is recommended that protein intake should contribute around
10-35% of total daily calorie intake.
Protein sources are of two types:
1. Complete proteins: These contain all the essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its
own. These are of high-quality and are highly digestible. Examples of complete protein sources
include animal-based proteins such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products like milk, cheese,
whey and yogurt.
2. Incomplete proteins: These are protein sources which may lack one or more essential amino acids.
Examples of incomplete proteins are plant-based protein sources such as legumes (beans, lentils,
chickpeas), soy products (tofu, tempeh), whole grains, nuts, and seeds. However, combining
varieties of different incomplete protein sources in diet, one can get a complete amino acid profile
from plant sources also.

Whey Protein:
The liquid portion of milk that separates from it during cheese production is called as whey. Or Whey
is the watery part of the milk remaining after the proteinaceous mass that results
from the coagulation of milk by acids or proteolytic enzymes.
Protein derived from whey is called as whey protein. Whey protein is a complete protein, meaning it
contains all the essential amino acids required by the body. The proteins consist of α-lactalbumin, β-
lactoglobulin, serum albumin and immunoglobulins. Glycomacropeptide also makes up the third
largest component but is not a protein. It is rich in branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), which play a
role in muscle protein synthesis and recovery. Whey protein is highly concentrated in protein,
containing 70-90% protein by weight. Thus, it is a popular dietary supplement, used by athletes and
body builders to support muscle recovery and enhance performance. It is also commonly used in the
food industry as an ingredient in various products.
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The following steps are involved in whey protein production process:
1. The milk is pasteurized to eliminate harmful bacteria.
2. The collected milk is then used to produce cheese by coagulation process. During the cheese-making
process, enzymes or acid are added to curdle the milk. pH is dropped to 4.6
3. The liquid whey, which contains water, lactose (milk sugar), minerals, and whey proteins, is
separated from the solid curds. This can be done through various methods such as centrifugation or
filtration.
4. The whey is further filtered using ultrafiltration membranes to remove any remaining impurities.
5. After filtration, the whey is subjected to additional concentration through processes like evaporation
or reverse osmosis to increase the protein content. Here, the water is removed from the whey, resulting
in a more concentrated protein solution.
6. The concentrated whey is subjected to processes such as ion exchange chromatography to isolate
whey. This technique separates the whey protein from other components present in the whey, such as
lactose and minerals.
7. After isolated, the whey protein is dried to create a powdered form. Spray drying is a commonly used
method, where the protein solution is sprayed into a heated chamber, causing the liquid to evaporate
and leaving behind the powdered whey protein.
Benefits offered by Whey protein:
1.Muscle Growth and Repair: Whey protein is rich in leucine, which plays a vital role in stimulating
muscle protein synthesis. Consuming whey protein after exercise can help support muscle recovery and
promote muscle growth.
2.Weight Management: whey protein, has been shown to promote feelings of fullness and satiety,
which can help control appetite and support weight management goals.
3.Nutrient Absorption: Whey protein can enhance the absorption of certain nutrients, particularly in
individuals with compromised digestive function.
4.Convenient Source of Protein: Whey protein supplements come in various forms, such as powders,
bars, and ready-to-drink shakes, making them convenient options for increasing protein intake on the
go or supplementing the diet with additional protein.
5.Versatility: Whey protein can be easily incorporated into recipes and beverages, making it a versatile
ingredient for boosting protein content in meals and snacks.
Meat analogos as Protein Sources:
• Meat analogues, are the products designed to resemble meat in its functionality, the taste, texture,
and appearance of meat but are made entirely from plant-based ingredients.
• Meat analogues are made from plant proteins, such as soy, wheat gluten, peas, or mushrooms.
• These proteins are combined with other ingredients like oils, starches, and flavorings to mimic the
taste, texture, and appearance of meat.

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• Meat analogues come in various forms, including burgers, sausages, nuggets, strips, and ground
meat alternatives. They can be made from a single type of plant protein or a combination of different
protein sources.
• Production of meat analogues has been on the increase, targeted at satisfying consumers‟ desire for
indulgent, healthy, low environmental impact, and ethical meat substitutes
• The factors that lead to this shift is due to low fat and calorie foods intake, flexitarians, animal
disease, natural resources depletion, and to reduce greenhouse gas emission. Currently, available
marketed meat analog products are plant-based meat in which the quality (i.e., texture and taste) are
similar to the conventional meat.
The main advantages of meat analogues are:
1. They are generally lower in fat and cholesterol compared to meat with higher dietary fiber.
2. Some meat analogues can also be fortified with additional nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals.
3. Consuming meat analogues will have lower environmental impact compared to conventional meat
production. Plant-based meats require fewer resources, produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions,
and contribute to reduced land and water use compared to animal agriculture.
4. Meat analogues can be a suitable option for individuals following vegetarian diets, as well as those
looking to reduce their meat intake.
5. Meat analogues can be grilled and baked and hence can be used in a wide range of recipes just like
classical meat dishes.

Plant based protein:

Plant-based protein sources are excellent alternatives for individuals to fulfill their protein requirement
without relying on animal products. These protein sources are considered as incomplete proteins,
because each source may lack one or more essential amino acids. However, combining varieties of
different incomplete protein sources in diet, one can get a complete amino acid profile from plant
sources also.
Factors contributing to the rise in popularity of plant proteins include:
1. Potential health benefits associated with increased intake of plant-based diets
2. Consumer concerns regarding adverse health effects of consuming diets high in animal protein (e.g.,
increased saturated fat)
3. Increased consumer recognition of the need to improve the environmental sustainability of food
production;
4. Ethical issues regarding the treatment of animals; and
5. General consumer view of protein as a “positive” nutrient (more is better). While there are health
and physical function benefits of diets higher in plant-based protein, the nutritional quality of plant
proteins may be inferior in some respects relative to animal proteins

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Few of the commonly available plant-based protein sources are:
1. Legumes: Legumes, including beans, lentils, chickpeas, and peas, are rich sources of protein.
2. Soy Products: Soybeans and soy-based products, such as tofu, tempeh, and edamame, are complete
protein sources and offer a wide range of essential amino acids.
3. Quinoa: Quinoa is a seed that is often referred to as a pseudo-cereal due to its nutritional profile and
culinary uses. It is a complete protein source.
4. Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, walnuts, peanuts, chia seeds, flaxseeds, and hemp seeds are examples of
plant-based protein sources rich in healthy fats, fiber, and other nutrients.
5. Whole Grains: Some whole grains, including oats, quinoa, brown rice, and whole wheat, contain
moderate amounts of protein.
6. Seitan: Seitan, also known as wheat gluten, is a high-protein food made from gluten, the main
protein in wheat. It has a meat-like texture and is often used as a meat substitute in dishes.
7. Spirulina: Spirulina is a type of blue-green algae that is rich in protein and contains all essential
amino acids. It is available in powdered form and can be used as a supplement
8. Vegetables: Vegetables are not high in protein content, but still contribute to overall protein intake.
Some vegetables with relatively higher protein content include spinach, broccoli, brussels sprouts, and
peas.
9. Plant-Based Meat Substitutes: Meat alternatives made from ingredients like soy, peas, or
mushrooms are available in the market in the form of burgers, sausages, and nuggets. These products
are designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of traditional meat.
Benefits of Plant-Based Proteins:
Nutrient-Rich: Plant-based proteins are often rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants,
providing a wide array of nutrients that support overall health.
Lower in Saturated Fat: Plant-based proteins are generally lower in saturated fat and cholesterol
compared to animal-based proteins, which can help promote heart health and lower the risk of certain
chronic diseases.
Sustainability: Producing plant-based proteins typically requires fewer resources, such as water and
land, and generates fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to animal agriculture, making them a
more environmentally sustainable choice.
Versatility: Plant-based proteins can be incorporated into a variety of dishes, including soups, salads,
stir-fries, sandwiches, wraps, and smoothies, providing flexibility and variety in the diet.

Lipids in biodiesel:
Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel manufactured domestically from vegetable oils, animal
fats, or recycled restaurant grease. Biodiesel meets both the biomass-based diesel and overall advanced
biofuel requirement of the Renewable Fuel Standard.
Lipid obtained from food waste was used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production using both a
chemical catalyst and a biocatalyst. Base (KOH) catalyzed transesterification of the lipid allowed a

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100% conversion of biodiesel in 2 h; whereas, Novozyme-435 yielded 90% biodiesel in 24 h. So lipids
are having a main application in bidiesel production.

Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids

1. Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, are collected and
purified to remove impurities.
2. Trans-esterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an alcohol - methanol, and a catalyst -
sodium hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) - the main components of
biodiesel.
3. Separation: into two layers: the upper layer contains the FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer
contains the glycerol (byproduct).
4. Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual alcohol and
soap that was formed during the trans esterification reaction. The biodiesel is then dried to
remove any remaining moisture.
5. Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove any impurities and improve its quality.
6. Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and distributed for use as a fuel.
Exact process can vary depending on the specific type of lipid and the desired quality of the final
product.
Main advantages of biodiesel are:
Biodiesel has many environmentally beneficial properties. The main benefit of biodiesel is that it can
be described as „carbon neutral‟. This means that the fuel produces no net output of carbon in the form
of carbon dioxide (CO2). This effect occurs because when the oil crop grows it absorbs the same
amount of CO2 as is released when the fuel is combusted.
1. It does not contain sulfur. It is also free from aromatics.
2. It contains more oxygen & hence undergoes complete combustion compared to diesel and hence
emits lesser amount of CO and hydrocarbons.
3. It is biodegradable and renewable.
4. It is cheaper than diesel.
5. It can be used in engine with no major modification in the engine hardware.
6. Recycled or used cooking oil, such as waste oil from restaurants or households, can be processed
into biodiesel.

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Limitations to the use of lipids as biodiesel
• higher production costs: compared to traditional diesel fuel
• Need for more efficient and cost effective processing methods.
Lipids in detergents production:
Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents
1. Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides - used as emulsifiers and
surfactants in personal care products - shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
2. Industrial cleaning: such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal.
3. Laundry detergents: to improve their cleaning performance.
Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Properties of lipid - suitable to cleaning agents
• Ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils.
• Lipid can form micelles which are tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt
particles making it easier to remove them.
Not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and that the specific properties of each lipid can
impact its performance.
Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be used as cleaning agents or detergents, particularly
in the form of soap. When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the hydrophobic regions
of the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic regions interact with
water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away. Here's how lipids function as cleaning agents:
 Soap Formation: Soap is traditionally made by saponifying lipids with a strong base, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), through a process known as
saponification. This reaction converts triglycerides (the main component of fats and oils) into
glycerol and fatty acid salts, which are the active cleaning agents in soap.
 Surfactant Properties: The fatty acid salts produced during saponification act as surfactants, which
are compounds that lower the surface tension between water and dirt, allowing them to mix more
easily. The hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while
the hydrophilic regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away Surfactants
help to lift dirt, oil, and grease from surfaces and suspend them in water, making them easier to
rinse away.
 Emulsification: Lipids can emulsify oils and greases, breaking them down into smaller droplets
and dispersing them in water. This emulsification process facilitates the removal of oily stains and
residues from surfaces, enhancing the cleaning effectiveness of lipid-based detergents.
 In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering capabilities, -
enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents in
shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering properties.
 Biodegradability: Unlike many synthetic detergents, which can be persistent in the environment
and may contribute to pollution, lipid-based detergents are typically biodegradable. They can be
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 broken down by microorganisms in the environment into simpler compounds, reducing their
impact on ecosystems.
 Mildness: Lipid-based detergents are often gentler on the skin compared to harsher synthetic
detergents. They are less likely to cause irritation or dryness, making them suitable for use in
personal care products such as hand soaps and body washes.
 Natural Origins: Lipids derived from renewable sources, such as plant oils, offer a more
sustainable alternative to petroleum-based detergents. Utilizing natural lipid sources reduces
reliance on fossil fuels and promotes environmentally friendly cleaning practices.
Enzymes in Biosensor Fabrication
Enzymes are integral to the development of biosensors due to their high specificity and catalytic
efficiency. Biosensors are analytical devices combining a biological component with a
physicochemical detector, used to detect the presence of various substances various enzymes are used
in biosensors.
 Glucose Oxidase (GOx):
 Function: Catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
 Application: Widely used in glucose biosensors for diabetes monitoring, providing
accurate and rapid glucose level readings.
 Lactate Oxidase:
 Function: Catalyzes the oxidation of lactate to pyruvate and hydrogen peroxide.
 Application: Used in sports medicine to monitor lactic acid levels in athletes, indicating
muscle exertion and fatigue.
 Urease:
 Function: Catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia.
 Application: Utilized in biosensors for medical diagnostics to detect urea levels in
blood or urine, essential for kidney function assessment.
 Cholesterol Oxidase:
 Function: Catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3-one and hydrogen
peroxide.
 Application: Used in cholesterol biosensors to monitor cholesterol levels in blood,
crucial for managing cardiovascular health.
 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE):
 Function: Breaks down acetylcholine into acetate and choline.
 Application: Employed in biosensors to detect pesticides and nerve agents by
measuring inhibition of AChE activity.
 Alcohol Dehydrogenase:
 Function: Catalyzes the conversion of alcohol to aldehyde or ketone.
 Application: Used in biosensors to detect alcohol levels, applicable in breathalyzers and
fermentation monitoring.
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Enzymes in Food Processing:
Enzymes are extensively used in the food industry to enhance processing efficiency, improve product
quality, and develop new food products.
 Amylases:
o Function: Break down starch into sugars.
o Application: Used in baking to improve bread texture and volume, in brewing to
convert starches into fermentable sugars, and in the production of high-fructose corn
syrup.
 Proteases:
o Function: Hydrolyze proteins into peptides and amino acids.
o Application: Applied in meat tenderizing, cheese production (rennet), and the
clarification of beer and juice.
 Lipases:
o Function: Break down fats into glycerol and free fatty acids.
o Application: Used in dairy to enhance flavor development in cheese and butter, in the
production of baked goods to improve texture, and in the modification of fats and oils.
 Pectinases:
o Function: Decompose pectin, a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.
o Application: Employed in fruit juice extraction and clarification, enhancing juice yield
and clarity.
 Cellulases:
o Function: Hydrolyze cellulose into glucose.
o Application: Used in juice production to increase yield and clarity, in coffee processing
to improve bean drying and quality, and in the extraction of olive oil.
 Lactase:
o Function: Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.
o Application: Used in the production of lactose-free dairy products, making them
suitable for lactose-intolerant individuals.
 Glucose Isomerase:
o Function: Converts glucose into fructose.
o Application: Essential in producing high-fructose corn syrup, a common sweetener in
many processed foods and beverages.

Advantages of Using Enzymes in Food Processing

 Specificity: Enzymes target specific substrates, resulting in precise modifications without undesired
side reactions.
 Mild Conditions: Enzymatic reactions typically occur under mild conditions (temperature, pH),
preserving the nutritional and sensory qualities of food.

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 Efficiency: Enzymes increase processing efficiency, reducing time and resource consumption.
 Safety: Enzymes are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and biodegradable, posing minimal risk
to health and the environment.
 Innovation: Enable the development of new food products and processes, meeting consumer
demand for novel and high-quality foods.

Enzymes in Detergent Formulation:

Enzymes play a crucial role in both detergent formulations and textile processing, offering
environmentally friendly and efficient solutions.
 Proteases:
o Function: Break down protein-based stains like blood, sweat, and food residues.
o Application: Enhance stain removal from fabrics, improving overall cleaning
efficiency.
 Lipases:
o Function: Degrade fats and grease into smaller, more soluble molecules.
o Application: Effective against oily and greasy stains, making detergents more versatile.
 Amylases:
o Function: Break down starch-based stains such as those from sauces and baby food.
o Application: Improve the removal of carbohydrate-based stains.
 Cellulases:
o Function: Hydrolyze cellulose fibers on the fabric surface.
o Application: Brighten colors, smooth fibers, and reduce pilling, enhancing the fabric's
appearance and texture.
 Mannanases:
o Function: Break down mannan, a common component in food thickeners.
o Application: Aid in removing food-related stains that contain mannan.
 Pectinases:
o Function: Decompose pectin, found in many fruit stains.
o Application: Effective for cleaning fruit-based stains from fabrics.

Enzymes in Textile Processing:

 Desizing:
o Enzymes Used: Amylases
o Function: Remove starch-based sizes applied to yarns.
o Application: Ensure efficient dyeing and finishing processes by removing sizing agents
without damaging fibers.
 Bio-Scouring:
o Enzymes Used: Pectinases, cellulases, lipases

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 o Function: Remove impurities such as waxes, pectins, and natural oils from cotton
fibers.
o Application: Prepare fabrics for dyeing and finishing, providing a more uniform and
higher quality product.
 Bio-Polishing:
o Enzymes Used: Cellulases
o Function: Remove protruding fibers and fuzz from fabric surfaces.
o Application: Produce a smoother, glossier fabric with reduced pilling.
 Bleaching:
o Enzymes Used: Laccases
o Function: Enhance the bleaching process by breaking down lignin.
o Application: Reduce the need for harsh chemicals, making the process more
environmentally friendly.
 Dyeing and Finishing:
o Enzymes Used: Catalases
o Function: Decompose hydrogen peroxide used in bleaching.
o Application: Ensure thorough removal of residual peroxide, which can interfere with
dye uptake, leading to more consistent and higher quality dyeing.
Advantages of Using Enzymes
 Eco-Friendly: Enzymes are biodegradable and reduce the need for harsh chemicals, minimizing
environmental impact.
 Energy Efficient: Enzymatic reactions often occur at lower temperatures and milder pH conditions,
saving energy and reducing wear on fabrics.
 Selective Action: Enzymes target specific stains or fabric components without damaging the textile
fibers.
 Improved Performance: Enhanced cleaning, brighter colors, and better fabric texture contribute to
improved product performance and consumer satisfaction.

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