Computer Networking Fundamentals

Course Summary
Based on Course Materials

Contents

1 Introduction to Computer Networks 3

1.1 Components of Data Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Network Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Internet Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Protocol Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Internet Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Packet Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Layered Internet Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 ISO/OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.10 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.11 Standardization Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Application Layer 5
2.1 Client-Server Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Peer-to-Peer Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 HTTP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Web Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 DHCP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 Email Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Transport Layer 7
3.1 Transport Layer Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 UDP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 TCP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 TCP Connection Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 Reliable Data Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.7 Error Detection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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4 Network Layer: IP Addressing, Subnets & NAT 8
4.1 IP Addressing Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 IP Address Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Subnetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 CIDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 IPv6 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.6 NAT (Network Address Translation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Network Layer: Routing Protocols 10

5.1 Routing vs. Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Longest Prefix Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Static Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Routing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.5 Intra-AS vs. Inter-AS Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.6 OSPF Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.7 BGP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.8 ICMP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

6 Link Layer and LANs 12

6.1 Link Layer Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2 Multiple Access Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.3 MAC Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.4 ARP Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.5 Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.6 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.7 VLANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7 Physical Layer 14
7.1 Signal Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.2 Digital Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.3 Transmission Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.4 Signal Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.5 Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.6 Cable Types and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.7 Error Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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1 Introduction to Computer Networks
1.1 Components of Data Communication
Data communication consists of five essential components:

• Sender

• Receiver

• Transmission media

• Message

• Protocol

1.2 Network Concepts

A network is the interconnection of devices capable of communication, comprised of:

• Nodes (end nodes and intermediary nodes)

• Links

• Interfaces

• Devices (connecting devices)

1.3 Network Topologies

Network topologies define how hosts are connected:

• Bus topology: Single cable works as a backbone, every device connects to that cable

• Star topology: A central switch/hub with all devices connected to it

• Ring topology: Each device connected to two neighbor nodes in a circle

• Mesh topology: Every node connected to every other node directly

• Hybrid topology: Combination of different topology types

1.4 Internet Structure

The Internet can be viewed as:

• A ”network of networks” with interconnected ISPs

• A layered architecture of protocols (HTTP, TCP, IP, WiFi, etc.)

• Infrastructure providing services to applications

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1.5 Protocol Concept
Protocols define the format, order of messages, and actions taken on message transmission
and receipt. They govern all communication activities in networks.

1.6 Internet Architecture

The Internet consists of:

• Network edge: hosts (clients and servers)

• Access networks and physical media: wired and wireless links

• Network core: interconnected routers forming a network of networks

1.7 Packet Switching

In packet switching:

• Hosts break application messages into packets

• Network forwards packets from router to router across paths

• Packets experience delay due to processing, queueing, transmission, and propaga-

tion

• Packet loss occurs when router buffers fill up

1.8 Layered Internet Protocol Stack

The Internet uses a 5-layer model:

• Application layer (HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS)

• Transport layer (TCP, UDP)

• Network layer (IP, routing protocols)

• Link layer (Ethernet, WiFi, PPP)

• Physical layer (bits ”on the wire”)

1.9 ISO/OSI Reference Model

The 7-layer OSI model includes two additional layers:

• Presentation layer: data interpretation, encryption, compression

• Session layer: synchronization, checkpointing, recovery

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1.10 Addressing
Four levels of addresses used in TCP/IP networks:

• Physical address (MAC): 48-bit, layer 2, e.g., A7-B1-98-CE-F0-11

• Logical address (IP): 32-bit, layer 3, e.g., 192.168.100.5

• Port address: 16-bit, layer 4, e.g., port 3060

• Specific address: Application-specific, e.g., email addresses

1.11 Standardization Bodies

Key organizations for networking standards:

• International: ISO, ITU, IEC, IEEE

• Regional: ETSI, CST

• Country-level: SCC, ANSI

• Other: IETF, W3C

2 Application Layer
2.1 Client-Server Architecture
Features of the client-server model:

• Server: Always-on host with permanent IP address

• Clients: Contact and communicate with server, may have dynamic IP addresses

• Examples: HTTP, IMAP, FTP

2.2 Peer-to-Peer Architecture

P2P architecture characteristics:

• No always-on server

• End systems directly communicate

• Self-scalability as peers bring both capacity and demand

• Intermittent connectivity and changing IP addresses

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2.3 HTTP Protocol
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) features:

• Client/server model

• Uses TCP on port 80

• Stateless protocol

• Connection types: Non-persistent (separate TCP connection per object) or Persis-

tent (multiple objects over single TCP connection)

• Methods: GET, POST, HEAD, PUT

• State management via cookies

2.4 Web Caching

Web caching (proxy servers):

• Satisfy client requests without involving origin server

• Reduce response time and traffic on access links

• Allow ”poor” content providers to effectively deliver content

2.5 DHCP Protocol

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:

• Allows hosts to dynamically obtain IP addresses

• Supports address reuse and mobile users

• Process: discover, offer, request, acknowledgment

• Can provide additional information (router address, DNS server, network mask)

2.6 Email Protocols

Email system components:

• User agents (mail readers)

• Mail servers (store incoming/outgoing messages)

• SMTP protocol for sending mail

• IMAP/POP3 for retrieving mail

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2.7 DNS
Domain Name System:

• Distributed database implemented in hierarchy of name servers

• Maps between IP addresses and domain names

• Hierarchical structure: Root, TLD, and authoritative DNS servers

• Query types: Recursive and iterative

3 Transport Layer
3.1 Transport Layer Services
The transport layer:

• Provides logical communication between application processes

• Segments messages and passes to network layer (sending side)

• Reassembles segments into messages for application layer (receiving side)

• Main protocols: TCP and UDP

3.2 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Transport layer processes:

• Multiplexing: Handles data from multiple sockets, adds transport header

• Demultiplexing: Uses header info to deliver received segments to correct socket

• UDP: Demultiplexes based on destination port number only

• TCP: Demultiplexes using 4-tuple (source/destination IP addresses and ports)

3.3 UDP Protocol

User Datagram Protocol features:

• ”No frills,” ”bare bones” transport

• Connectionless service (no handshaking)

• ”Best effort” service with no guarantees

• Small header size, no congestion control

• Used for streaming media, DNS, SNMP, HTTP/3

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3.4 TCP Protocol
Transmission Control Protocol features:
• Connection-oriented with handshaking
• Reliable, in-order byte stream delivery
• Flow controlled to prevent overwhelming receiver
• Full-duplex data transfer
• Includes congestion control

3.5 TCP Connection Management

TCP connection phases:
• Establishment: Three-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK)
• Data transfer: Reliable transmission with acknowledgments
• Connection termination: FIN exchange

3.6 Reliable Data Transfer

Principles for reliability:
• Error detection
• Acknowledgments
• Timeouts and retransmissions
• Sequence numbers

3.7 Error Detection Methods

Common error detection techniques:
• Single Parity Check: Extra bit added to make total number of 1’s even or odd
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Powerful detection using polynomial division
• Checksum: Value formed by adding data units using one’s complement arithmetic

4 Network Layer: IP Addressing, Subnets & NAT

4.1 IP Addressing Basics
IP addressing fundamentals:
• 32-bit identifier for host or router interface
• Written in dotted-decimal notation (e.g., 223.1.1.1)
• Interface: Connection between host/router and physical link

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4.2 IP Address Classes
Traditional classful addressing:

• Class A: First bit 0, network prefix 8 bits (0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255)

• Class B: First bits 10, network prefix 16 bits (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255)

• Class C: First bits 110, network prefix 24 bits (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255)

• Class D: First bits 1110, multicast addresses (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255)

• Class E: First bits 1111, reserved (240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255)

4.3 Subnetting
Subnet concepts:

• Division of larger network into smaller networks

• Limits broadcasts to subnet

• Improves management of traffic

• Implemented by borrowing bits from host part for network part

• Subnet mask determines network vs. host portion

4.4 CIDR
Classless Inter-Domain Routing:

• Allows subnet portion of arbitrary length

• Address format: a.b.c.d/x where x is prefix length

• Enables more efficient use of IP address space

• Supports route aggregation (summarization)

4.5 IPv6 Addressing

IPv6 features:

• 128-bit addresses

• No checksum for faster processing

• No fragmentation/reassembly

• Flow label for identifying datagrams in same flow

• Priority field to identify importance of datagrams

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4.6 NAT (Network Address Translation)
NAT operation:

• Allows devices in local network to share single public IP

• Uses private address space (10/8, 172.16/12, 192.168/16)

• Translates (source IP, port) to (NAT IP, new port) for outgoing traffic

• Maintains translation table for incoming packet routing

• Types: Static NAT (1:1 mapping) and Dynamic NAT (many-to-many)

5 Network Layer: Routing Protocols

5.1 Routing vs. Forwarding
Key network layer functions:

• Forwarding: Moving packets from input to output ports (data plane)

• Routing: Determining routes from source to destination (control plane)

5.2 Longest Prefix Matching

Forwarding table lookup:

• When multiple entries match a destination address, use entry with longest matching
prefix

• Allows for more specific routes to override more general ones

5.3 Static Routing

Static routing characteristics:

• Manual configuration of routing tables

• Syntax: ip route [destination network] [subnet mask] [next-hop address

or exitinterface]

• Advantages: Easy implementation, security, no overhead

• Disadvantages: Not scalable, requires manual updates, no dynamic adaptation

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5.4 Routing Algorithms
Two main approaches:

• Link State Algorithm (Dijkstra’s algorithm)

– Each node gathers complete network topology

– Centralized computation of least-cost paths
– Each node has the same information

• Distance Vector Algorithm (Bellman-Ford)

– Nodes exchange distance vectors with neighbors

– Iterative, distributed computation
– Dx (y) ← minv {cx,v + Dv (y)}

5.5 Intra-AS vs. Inter-AS Routing

Hierarchical routing approach:

• Intra-AS (intra-domain): Routing within an Autonomous System

– Common protocols: RIP, EIGRP, OSPF

• Inter-AS (inter-domain): Routing between Autonomous Systems

– Main protocol: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

5.6 OSPF Protocol

Open Shortest Path First features:

• Link-state routing protocol for intra-AS routing

• Floods link-state advertisements throughout the AS

• Each router has complete topology, uses Dijkstra’s algorithm

• Supports multiple metrics (bandwidth, delay)

• Provides authentication for security

5.7 BGP Protocol

Border Gateway Protocol:

• De facto inter-domain routing protocol

• Allows subnets to advertise existence and reachable destinations

• eBGP: Obtain reachability info from neighboring ASes

• iBGP: Propagate reachability info within AS

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5.8 ICMP Protocol
Internet Control Message Protocol:

• Used for network-level information communication

• Error reporting (unreachable host/network)

• Echo request/reply (ping)

• TTL expired messages (used by traceroute)

6 Link Layer and LANs

6.1 Link Layer Services
Key services provided:

• Framing and link access (encapsulation, channel access)

• Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes

• Flow control between adjacent nodes

• Error detection and correction

• Half-duplex and full-duplex transmission

6.2 Multiple Access Protocols

Categories of protocols for shared media:

• Channel Partitioning

– TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

– FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

• Random Access

– CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

– CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

• Taking Turns

– Polling
– Token passing

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6.3 MAC Addressing
Media Access Control addressing:

• 48-bit unique identifier for network interfaces

• Format: 6 bytes, typically written in hexadecimal (e.g., 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD)

• Administered by IEEE

• Used for local communication within the same subnet

6.4 ARP Protocol

Address Resolution Protocol:

• Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses on a LAN

• ARP table stores IP-to-MAC mappings with TTL

• ARP request broadcast when mapping unknown

• ARP reply sent directly to requester

6.5 Ethernet
Ethernet technologies:

• Physical topologies: Bus (older) and switched (modern)

• CSMA/CD for media access (historical)

• Uses 48-bit MAC addresses

• Frame structure includes preamble, addresses, type, data, CRC

6.6 Switches
Ethernet switch operation:

• Link-layer device that forwards frames based on MAC addresses

• Self-learning: Builds table mapping MAC addresses to interfaces

• Filtering/forwarding: Selectively forwards frames to relevant ports

• Allows multiple simultaneous transmissions

• Can be interconnected to create larger networks

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6.7 VLANs
Virtual Local Area Networks:

• Logical segmentation of devices on same switches

• Benefits: Smaller broadcast domains, improved security and management

• Types: Default VLAN, Data VLAN, Native VLAN, Management VLAN, Voice
VLAN

• VLAN trunks allow VLANs to span multiple switches

7 Physical Layer
7.1 Signal Types
Basic signal classifications:

• Analog vs. Digital signals

• Periodic vs. Nonperiodic signals

• Sine waves: Fundamental periodic signals defined by amplitude, frequency, and

phase

7.2 Digital Signals

Digital signal characteristics:

• Bit rate: Number of bits sent per second (bps)

• Bit length: Distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium

7.3 Transmission Impairment

Signal impairments during transmission:

• Attenuation: Loss of signal energy over distance

• Distortion: Change in signal shape due to varying delays

• Noise: Random electrical signals causing degradation (thermal, induced, crosstalk)

7.4 Signal Modulation

Analog-to-analog conversion methods:

• Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varying the carrier amplitude

• Frequency Modulation (FM): Varying the carrier frequency

• Phase Modulation (PM): Varying the carrier phase

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7.5 Transmission Media
Types of media for signal transmission:

• Guided Media

– Twisted-pair cable: Insulated copper wire pairs (Cat 3-7)

– Coaxial cable: Higher frequency range with central conductor and shielding
– Fiber-optic cable: Glass/plastic fibers transmitting light signals

• Unguided Media

– Radio waves (3 kHz - 300 GHz)

– Microwaves (3 MHz - 300 GHz)

7.6 Cable Types and Connections

Cable specifications:

• Straight-through cable: Same termination at both ends

• Crossover cable: Transmit/receive wires reversed at one end

• Connectors: RJ-45 for Ethernet, RJ-11 for telephone

• Termination tools: Wire cutter, stripper, crimping tool

7.7 Error Types

Transmission errors:

• Single-bit errors: Isolated errors affecting one bit

• Burst errors: Contiguous sequence affecting multiple bits

• Error detection/correction uses redundancy (extra bits)

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