Introduction of Agroforestry: concept, development and

Bangladesh perspective
Concept of Agroforestry
Agroforestry is neither an invention nor a new concept. The practice is combining tree species which
had been practiced in some form or other in most of the countries. The concept of Agroforestry
probably originated from the realization of trees play an important role in protecting the long range
interests of agriculture that is economically viable. The emergence of agroforestry was influenced by
the need to maximize the utilization of soil resources through the ‘‘marriage of forestry and
agriculture” (PCARRD, 1983) the basic concept of inter cropping has been extended to agroforestry
system. However, agroforestry as a new applied science is a matter of discussion of the contemporary
time. With the increase of human beings in the geometrical progression and the land area remaining
infinite, there is no other alternative but to grow food, fuel, fodder and fiber in an integrated manner in
the same unit of land.
Agroforestry is the art and science of growing woody and non-woody plants together on the same unit
of land for a range of benefits. Agroforestry, as it is now called (Lundgren, 1982) usually possesses all
of the following features:
▪ multiple plant components, at least one of which must be a woody perennial
▪ a high level of interaction(economic and biophysical) between the woody and non-
woody components
▪ usually multiple products, often of different categories(e.g. food, fodder, fuelwood)
▪ at least one service function (shelter, shade, soil amelioration, etc.)
▪ a dependence on the use and manipulation of plant biomass, especially by optimizing
the use of plant residues
Definitions of agroforestry
‘‘Agroforestry refers to those land use practices in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, woody
vines, bamboo, palms, ete.) are grown in association with agricultural crops or pastures, sometimes
with livestock or other animals (e.g. insects such as bees, fish), and in which there are both ecological
and economic interactions between the woody plants and other component”.
‘‘Agroforestry land-use is the deliberate inter or sequential cropping of woody and non-woody plant
components (sometimes with animals) in order to generate multiple product and ‘services’. There are
both ecological and economical interactions between the various components”.
Recently ICRAF defined ‘‘Agroforestry as a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resources
management system that, through the integration of trees on farmland and in the agricultural landscape,
diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land
users at all levels”.
According to Lundgreen and Raintree (1982) ‘‘Agroforestry is a collective name for all land use
systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo etc.) are deliberately
grown on the same land management unit as agricultural crops and/or animals either in spatial mixture
or in temporal sequence. There must be significant ecological and economical interactions between the
woody and non-woody components.”
Characteristics of Agroforestry
Broad Characteristics
► The deliberate growing of woody perennial on the same unit of land as agricultural crops
and/or animals, either in some form of spatial mixture or in temporal sequences.
► There must be significant interaction (positive and/or negative) between woody and non-
woody components of the system, either ecological and / or economical.

Specific Characteristics
► Multiple plant components, at least one of which must be a woody perennial.
► A high level of interaction (economic and biophysical) between the woody and non-woody
components of the system, either ecological and / or economical.
► Usually multiple products, often of different categories (e.g. food, fodder, fuelwood, timber)
► At least one service function (shelter, shade, soil amelioration, etc.).
► The cycle of an agroforestry system is always more than one year.
► The most simple agroforestry system is more complex, ecological and economically than a
monocropping system.
► A dependence on the use and manipulation of plant biomass, especially by optimizing the
use of plant residues.
Attributes of agroforestry
There are three attributes which all agroforestry systems possess, these are-
► Productivity
► Sustainability
► Adoptability
Productivity: most, if not all, agroforestry systems aim to maintain or increase production (of
preferred commodities) as well as productivity (of the land). Agroforestry can improve productivity in
many different ways. These include: increased output of tree products, improved yields of associated
crops, reduction of cropping system inputs, and increased labor efficiency.
Sustainability: by conserving the production potential of the resource based, mainly through the
beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils, agroforestry can achieve and indefinitely maintain
conservation and fertility goals.
Adoptability: the word ‘adopt’ here means ‘accept’, and it may be distinguished from another
commonly-used word adapt, which implies ‘modify’ or ‘change’. The fact that agroforestry is a
relatively new word for an old set of practices means that, in some cases, agroforestry has already been
accepted by the farming community. However, the implication here is that improved or new
agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas should also conform to local farming
practices.
Components of Agroforestry
There are three major components in agroforestry system. These are:
▪ Tree or woody perennials
▪ Crops
▪ Animals/Pastures

Tree Crops Animals/

Pastures

Agrisilviculture
(Crop dominant) Silvipastoral Agrisilvipastoral
Silviagriculture
(Tree dominant)

Fig. Component based major systems of agroforestry

History of Agroforestry
The history of agroforestry intimately associated with the practices of Shifting cultivation and Taungya
system.
Shifting cultivation: The term refers to farming of agricultural systems in which land under
vegetation is cleared, cropped with agricultural crops for year, and then left unattended while the
natural vegetation regenerates. The cultivation phase is usually short (2-3 yrs.), but the regeneration
phase is much longer (traditionally 10-20 yrs.) This is also known as jhum cultivation or jhuming.
Jhum is a special kind of comprehensive agricultural practice cultured by the indigenous people for
several centuries is also popular known as Sweden cultivation or cultivation of slash and burn.
Jhuming comprises cutting and burning of forest, making holes over the small hill-beds and then
sowing a variety of seeds. The life and culture of ethnic people of Chittagong Hill Tracks depends on
Jhum cultivation to a great extent.
Criteria of choosing suitable land for jhum cultivation:
Choice of land for jhum cultivation depends on the following features:
 The high slope
 Well grown trees and bamboo- if trees and bamboo are well grown in a place, the cultivators
think that place fertile and good jhuming.
 The hills which have large trees in their hillside are not selected for jhum cultivation.
 Enough availability of earth worm in the soil.
Land processing: The land is processed by cutting and burning of trees starting from January and is
continued to the month of March. Small bushes and bamboo are only cut and burnt in the processing of
land. Big trees are not cut down for this purpose.
Sowing: Sowing of jhum covers the whole month of March. By July, the plants become suitable from
cutting. But cutting generally begins from August. As the plants come to a maturity it has to be
guarded against the depredations of wild pigs, deer, monkeys, parrots and rats. Usually man cuts the
jhum for the family. The woman and children are responsible for weeding, tending and harvesting.
Harvesting: Harvesting of rice begins from early October and continues to the month of November.
Cutting of maize first starts at September which is called ‘Prenlua’. Maize is cut for the second time in
the month of November along with the cutting of rice, which is called ‘Prenlong’. Cutting of cotton
and sesame seed starts at November continues to the month of December.
The following crops are very common in jhuming in the whole of Chittagong Hill Tracts:
♣ Dhan (Rice) ♣ Bhutta (Maize) ♣ Til (Sesame seed) ♣ Tula (Cotton) ♣ Vegetables etc.
Taungya system:
In Burmese, ‘Taung’ means hill and ‘ya’ means cultivation i. e. taungya means hill cultivation. The
taungya system consists of growing annual agricultural crops along with the forest species during the
early years of establishment of the forestry plantation.
In 1860, this system has popularly been used in Burma for the establishment of Teak (Tectona
grandis). Then it was introduced into South Africa and in Chittagong of Bengal areas in colonial India
in 1871. This is a method of establishing forest crops in temporary combination with agricultural
crops. Agricultural cropping is confined to the period which ends with the casting of dense lateral
shade or closing of the canopy of the forest crops. The farmers tend the forest crops and may also be
required to plant it. They usually receive use of the land in return for this labor. This is practiced in
Bangladesh.
At the dawn of human civilization these two practices were found suitable to supply the basic needs of
human beings. But with the passes of time when population were increasing both the practices were
found inadequate to supply the forest products and failed to protect the environment. Sometimes the
practices were influencing the rate of deforestation. Therefore, amidst serious concern over
environment degradation, the world nations are thinking about a joint production system that can meet
the requirements of forest products as well as conserve the environment. Difference between shifting
cultivation and taungya system
Shifting cultivation Taungya system
♣ to produce crops ♣ to grow trees
♣ it is sequential system of growing woody ♣ it is a simultaneous system
species and agricultural crops
♣ the length of agricultural cycle last only as ♣ it is primarily dependent on the
long as the soil sustain reasonable crop yield physical availability of space and light

However, the first step towards the development of modern agroforestry with scientific land use
system emerged from the classical forestry of the taungya method of reforestation, first developed in
Myanmar (earlier Burma) towards the end of the 19th century, and later disseminated to other parts of
the then British Empire including Bangladesh. The wider implications and potential of the taungya
approach were first recognized by Kenneth king (1968) at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria. King
coined the name “Agrisilviculture” to refer to what later came to be called ‘Agroforestry’. Meanwhile
in the 1970s many factors and development were taken place in the human history. This contributed to
the general acceptance of agroforestry as a system of land management that is applicable to both farm
and forest. These events included:
 ♣ The deteriorating food situation in many areas of the developing world.
♣ The increasing spread of tropical of deforestation and ecological degradation;
♣ The energy crisis of the 1970s and consequent price escalation and shortage of fertilizers;
♣ The establishment of a project for the identification of tropical forestry research priorities by the
International Development Research Center (IDRC).
In the meantime, Green Revolution program started. Soon after the start of Green Revolution, it was
realized that the green revolution technologies compelled heavy demand of fertilizers, insecticides and
other costly inputs which were beyond the economic reach of resources poor farmers in the developing
countries. On the contrary developed countries employed their all out effort to derive the highest
benefit of Green Revolution by increasing the production using all costly inputs like fertilizer and
pesticide. Due to the over exploitation of natural resources, their all effect were increasingly exerted
environment which ultimately created serious deforestation throughout the tropics. Against this
backdrop of concern of the world wide environment degradation, IDRC appointed a commission under
the leadership of John Bene, a famous Canadian forester to look into “ the matter and to formulate the
sustainable forestry research programs that results considerable economic and social impact on
developing countries”.
In July 1975, the International Development Research Center commissioned John Bene to undertake a
study to:
1. Identify the significant gap in world forestry research and training;
2. Assess the interdependence between forestry and agriculture in low-income tropical countries and
propose research leading to optimization of land use;
3. Formulate forestry research programmes holding promise for considerable economic and social
impact on developing countries;
4. Recommend institutional arrangements to carry such research effectively and expeditiously; and
5. Prepare a plan of action to obtain international donor support.
Bene Commission in their report stressed that priority should be given on compound production
system which would integrated forestry, agriculture and/or animal husbandry in order to optimize
tropical land use.
This background work of Bene Commission led to the establishment of ICRAF (International Council
for Research in Agroforestry) in 1977 in Kenya which is the formal beginning of Agroforestry research
and practices. Thus agroforestry, an old practice, was institutionalized for the first time. From then
ICRAF has played leading role in collecting information, conducting research, disseminating research
results, pioneering new approached and system etc. ICRAF then renamed in 1991 as the International
Center for Research in Agroforestry.
The cultivation of tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination has been a practice
through the world at one period or another in its history.
Historical development of Agroforestry in Bangladesh
Betagi-Pomora Community Forestry Project (1979): This was the first Agroforestry program started by
the Forest Department under the umbrella of social forestry program. Betagi and Pomora are the two
village of Rangunia Upazila of Chittagong. These were two denuded (devoid of trees ) hill were the
Govt. rehabilitate families who encroached forest land with a view to plant trees along with the
provision of cultivation of agricultural crops in the allotted land for each family. Initially the program
was started in participation of 70 families of Betagi village in 1979, then it was extended in Pomora
village on Khas and protected forest land. To start with 70 families so far total 235 families (83 in
Betagi and 152 in Pomora) has been rehabilitated in two village.
In the mid 1980s on farm Research Division (OFRD) in BARI was established where Agroforestry as
a land use systems were evaluated and its potential and necessity in our farming system has been
judged.
In 1987, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) conducted Agroforestry research works in
Ichamoti of Rangunia. Fashiakhali of Dulahazra and Salna of Gazipir with a view to maximize the
productivity of the Govt. forest land.
In 1988, the Institute of Forestry of the University of Chittagong introduced the course of Agroforestry
in its curricula for the degree of B. Sc (Hons.) in Forestry. Subsequently, the institute changed its name
as “Institute of Forestry and Environment”.
In 1988, Village and farm Forestry Program (VFFP) was initiated under the guidance of Prof. Abdul
Haque (the then Professor of Crop Botany) with financial assistance of Swiss Agency for Development
and Cooperation (SDC). This program dealt with the exploration of feasibility of implementing
Agroforestry works in different areas to the country. This program actually helped in establishing
Agroforestry Department in the Bangladesh Agricultural University.
In the 1990, the giant NGOs like BRAC, Proshika, SDC and others started Agroforestry works in the
country.
In the 1995, Department of Agroforestry and Environment was established in IPSA, now
Banghabandhu Sheikh Mujibar Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU) to offer MS in
Agroforestry.
In 1996, Department of Agroforestry was established by the indefatigable works of Prof. Abdul
Haque. With the incorporation of courses of Agroforestry for the undergraduate student of the Faculty
of Agriculture, the Agroforestry movement gained momentum. In the newly established department,
he (Prof. A. Haque) was the founder head.
In 1997, National Agroforestry working Group (NAWG) was formed by the active initiation of the
personnel engaged in the Forestry Division of Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC).
In 1998, First National Agroforestry Workshop was held at BARC organized by NAWG during 21-25
June.
In 2001, the Department of Agroforestry started its master degree program to offer Master of Science
and since then the department is engaged in producing post-graduates.
Benefits of Agroforestry
1. Environmental/ecological benefits:
♣ Better protection of crops and lives from environmental hazards such as flood, drought, cyclone
etc.
♣ Conserved biodiversity
♣ Improved microclimate- such as reduce soil temperature, reduces evaporation of soil moisture.
♣ Purification of air and water.
♣ Reduce use of chemical fertilizer
♣ Reduce pressure on forests.
♣ Protect lands through reduction of surface run-off and soil erosion.
♣ Increase soil nutrients through of addition decomposition of litter fall.
♣ More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep-rooted trees.
♣ Improve soil structures through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed litter.
2. Economic benefits:
♣ Diversifies the range outputs a given area
♣ Increase the value of outputs from a given area of land.
♣ Reduces in incidence of total crop failure, common to single or monocropping systems.
♣ Spread the needs for labour inputs more evenly through the year.
♣ Provides productive use of underutilized land, labour and capital.
♣ Increases in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.
3. Social benefits:
♣ Improved in rural living standards from sustained employment higher incomes.
 ♣ Improved in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food outputs
♣ Stabilization and improvement of upland communities through elimination of the need to shift
sites of farm activities.
4. Biological benefits:
♣ Increase crop productivity.
♣ Sustain crop productivity.
♣ Produce diversified foods.
♣ Increase forest productivity.
♣ Increase fruit supply.
♣ Decrease weeds infection.
Potentials of Agroforestry
Through soil processes:
♣ control soil erosion
♣ maintain soil organic matter (and hence soil fertility)
♣ improve and sustain soil physical conditions (and be better at these agricultural systems).
♣ add substantial amounts of nitrogen to the system through nitrogen fixing trees.
♣ capture mineral nutrients from deeper soil layers, and recycle to the top soil.
♣ form a more or less closed ecological system (i.e. retain all, or most, of the mineral nutrients
within the system).
♣ reduce soil acidity (through leaf liter).
♣ reclaim degraded soils.
♣ improve soil fertility through the biomass from tree root systems as above-ground parts.
♣ improve soil biological activity and nitrogen mineralization through tree shade.
♣ enhance mycorrhizal association through tree-crop mixture(grown simultaneously or sequentially,
i.e., in rotation).
Through biophysical interactions:
♣ improve the capture of rainfall, light and mineral nutrients, and so increase biomass production
♣ improve the efficiency with which captured light, water and nutrients are utilized.
♣ deter the spread and damage caused by insect pests and plant disease organisms.
Other environmental clams for trees/shrubs:
♣ nitrogen fixing trees have more nodules when in close contact with non-nitrogen fixers (perhaps
with direct nitrogen transfer)
♣ their canopy can protect the soil surface from erosion.
♣ they provide beneficial shelter to associated crops and grasses(as may hedges).
Advantages of Agroforestry
It maximize production: Under tropical conditions, temperature and humidity levels are high,
therefore, tree in associations with crops are capable of utilizing available solar radiation throughout
the year and, therefore, total productivity under the agroforestry land use systems is likely to be more
than agriculture. Forestry system preferably with legume trees maintain soil fertility through nutrient
recycling which in the other hand ensure sustainable farming system. The logic behind maximum
production under agroforestry system are-
♣ greater efficiency of perennial crops for photosynthesis.
♣ trapping nutrients and water from deeper layers by perennial crops.
♣ creating better environmental conditions for the growth of annual crops.
However, under several conditions there might be intense competition for light, moisture and nutrients
but proper selection of suitable trees and agricultural crops, production can be sustainable increased.
Supplement food, fuel and fodder: Food, fuel and fodder are the immediate requirement of all the
marginal farmers of Bangladesh. The small holding farmers who are producing agricultural crops can
only meet the demand of foods but if he included trees in his cropping system it ensure the constant
supply of fuel and fodder requirement. Moreover a number of trees supply variety of products
simultaneously (e.g. food, fuel, fodder etc). Therefore, practicing agroforestry system not only supports
the livelihood of the farm family but also helps his cattle, poultry, duck etc.
Improve soil: Agroforestry systems tend to protect soil from several adverse effects. Most
agroforestry systems constitute sustainable land use and improve soils in a number of ways-
♣ reduction of loss of soil by reducing surface run-off.
♣ it adds C through decomposable biomass
♣ enrich the soil through biological nitrogen fixation.
♣ it improves soil physical conditions by increasing water holding capacity.
♣ it helps in nutrient recycling that conserve soil.
♣ it protects the natural flora and fauna within the soil.
♣ it help in soil conservation through the protective role of windbreaks and shelterbelts.
Utilize wastelands and degraded lands: Under traditional system of agriculture saline alkali soils,
water logged areas mountain hill slopes and eroded areas are either remains unutilized. There are a
great number of species have been found capable of growing there making it productive. It could be
possible only by proper selection of suitable species, appropriate technology, and sufficient inputs.
Provide employment opportunities: Agroforestry systems increase employment opportunities as it
involve multiple components in the production schemes. Agricultural labour who remain workless
during off-season find alternative labour opportunities in the forestry works. Most of the forestry
works are labour intensive and considerable opportunities are generated from agroforestry works.
Increase farm income: Agroforestry provide the farmer a variety of alternatives of agricultural,
forestry and horticultural crops of which the farmer can select the most suitable and profitable one.
There were evidence that agroforestry gives more income to the farmer per unit of land than pure
agriculture or forestry
Minimize adverse effect of climatic factors: Drought, flood and cyclones are the frequent natural
hazard of the country. The whole country in general and particularly the coastal areas is experiencing
heavy damages every year due to natural disaster. During drought and floods, the agricultural crops are
either destroyed or their production is considerably reduced. Immediately after drought and floods,
there is severe crisis of food, fuel and fodder. Under such a situation, several trees and shrubs may
provide food, fodder and other products during most critical periods, trees provide insurance for
survival. The farmers can sell his trees and get ready money for sustenance during the crisis period.
Therefore the drought and flood prone areas, agroforestry is appropriate land use systems.
Aid industrial growth: Agroforestry systems are capable of meeting the demands of raw materials of
both agro-based and forest-based industries. Inclusion of fast-growing trees provides the raw materials
of paper and pulp mills, sport goods, furniture, saw mills etc.
Improve environment: After the Earth Summit held in Brazilian capital Rio-de-Janerio in 1992, there
was serious concern all over the world due to degradation of environment. Serious adverse ecological
manifestation, increase of CO2 in the atmosphere, global warming due to green house effect, increased
draught and floods due to effect of El-nino and La-nina, high pollution problems etc, is the results of
deforestation that the Summit concluded. So the concerted efforts need to cheek the process of
ecological degradation is to in crease tree coverage in earth. Agroforestry system helps to increase tree
coverage and reduce the present rate of deforestation through reduction of pressure on natural forests.
Forest and trees increase precipitation and decrease temperature thus reducing the effect of green house
effect.
Social Forestry
What is Social forestry?
The term social forestry is first introduced by the National Commission of India in 1976. In that time
social forestry movement became much popular. After the World Forestry Congress in 1978, most of
the countries of the world agreed to shift their industrially oriented forestry program to peoples
oriented program that ensure ecological and socio-economic needs of the common people.
Social forestry means the forestry practice which aim at providing goods and benefits to a nearby
society through spontaneous participation of social element. In other words social forestry means the
afforestation program or forest management activities where the peoples are directly involved and
intimately associated. The benefits derived out of these activities are enjoyed by the people i.e. the
forests created through spontaneous participation of the people by the people and for the people is
social forestry.
According to FAO, social forestry is such a forestry activities management program in which the rural
poor people are intimately and intensively associated. The beneficiaries are getting their foods, fuel,
fodder and other necessities for their living.
The synonymous terms that mean social forestry are-
♣ Community forest or forestry for local community development
♣ Village forestry
♣ Rural forestry or rural development forestry
♣ People oriental forest or participatory forestry
Basic characteristics of social forestry
♣ social forestry program involved the rural poor people
♣ social forestry programs are designed to meet the basic needs of the people for fuel, food, fodder
and small timber.
♣ social forestry program encourage the development of self reliance among the people.
Basic objectives of social forestry:
♣ to uplift the socioeconomic well being of the villagers.
♣ to improve the land use practice.
♣ to increase forest coverage
♣ to encourage tree plantation on marginal land
♣ to improve environmental condition
♣ to create employment opportunity.
♣ to create leadership quality of the rural people
♣ to use idle land resources with idle manpower
♣ to improve relationship between rural people and other societies.
Problems of social forestry:
There are so many problems and constraints are associated with social forestry development in
Bangladesh. Some of them are listed below:
♣ natural calamities ♣ irregular disbursement of caretaker’s remuneration

♣ people awareness and attitude ♣ presence of village politics

♣ inadequate policy and legislation ♣ absence of effective motivational activities

♣ lack of incentives ♣ overlooking women’s participation

♣ ill motive ♣ absence of technical personnel

♣ illegal demand of concerned ♣ lack of political commitment

authorities
♣ grazing
Prospects of Social forestry in Bangladesh:
Now social forestry has high momentum in Bangladesh. It has the huge scope and prospect in
Bangladesh. For a balanced ecological stability every country should have at least 25% forest of its
land. In a country like Bangladesh it should have more than 25% of forestland but we have very
inadequate. Though Bangladesh is one of the countries of the world having land scarcity and over
population, we have enough scope to raise plantation vertically. In our country we have limited scope
to employ unskilled, semi-skilled, and educated idle, young and potential stars. We can engage them
easily in plantation activities. In Bangladesh women consists of 48% of total population of the country
and they are not involved in any productive sector due to porda protha, lack of information and
resource and they are depended on male heads. All destitute helpless, divorced, and disadvantaged
woman and unemployed young can be engaged in nursery and plantation work. Our land is very fertile
and environment is favourable for growing of trees. Afforestation can help in the generation of
employment opportunities for rural labours force, rehabilitate the degraded lands, meeting up domestic
need of the villagers, conservation of soil moisture and checking environmental and ecological
degradation. We have 68000 villages and in every village there are homesteads and fallow land. If we
become aware and make plan and take initiative, our villages will be covered with different species.
Somewhere in the town there is scope of plantation. In Bangladesh, we have 1050000 km feeder road,
2880 km rail line 6500 km embankment, land side tea states, huge coastal areas, river and canal side,
barren hill area, pond side and unproductive unusable barren land where we can plant seedlings. A
huge number of educated unemployed youth are looking for jobs in government, non-government
organizations. These educated efforts, our golden Bengal will covered with green.
Introduction to Bangladesh forest
What is conventional forestry?
The conventional forestry system is that forestry practice which includes the forestry activities that has
been done in the Govt. reserve forestland area. . These activities include the theory and practices that
constitute the creation, conservation and scientific management of forest and national utilization of
these resources.
Forest: is biologically defined as a community of plants and animals generally dominated by trees.
Forest is being defined by FAO as-ecological systems with a minimum of 10% crown cover of trees
and or bamboos. Generally it is associated with wild flora, fauna and natural soil conditions and not
subject to agricultural practices.
Forest community: A group of organisms (like, trees and or bamboo associated with other wild flora
and fauna) living together under more or less similar environmental conditions with mutual adjustment
and beneficial interactions is called a forest community.
Forest type: Forest type is a unit forest or tree as semblance whose nature, morpho-physiological
characteristics and species arrangement possess similar characteristics and which is easily
differentiated from other unit forest.
Present Status of Forest Resources in Bangladesh:

Of the total area of Bangladesh, agricultural land makes up 65% of its geographic surface, forest lands
account for almost 17%, while urban areas are 8% of the area. Water and other land use account for the
remaining 10%. The total forestland includes classified and unclassified state lands and homestead
forests and tea/rubber gardens. In case of private forests, the data represent the tree-covered areas.
Of the 2.52 million hectare Forest Land, Forest Department manages 1.52 million hectare which
includes Reserved, Protected and Acquired forest and Mangrove forest on the newly accreted land in
estuaries of major rivers. The remaining 0.73 million hectare of land designated as Unclassed State
Forest (USF) are under the control of Ministry of Land. Village forests (homestead land) form the most
productive tree resource base in the country and accounts for 0.27 million hectare.
Table 1: Area distribution of different land use category

Land use category Area (million hectare) Percentage

Agriculture 9.57 64.9
State Forest
Classified 1.52 10.3
Unclassified 0.73 5
 Private Forest
Homestead 0.27 1.8
Tea/Rubber Garden 0.07 0.5
Urban 1.16 7.9
Water 0.94 6.4
Other 0.49 3.2
Total 14.75 100

Table 2: Total Forest Land of Bangladesh

Category of Forests Area (million hectare) Percentage

Forest Department Managed Forests 1.52 10.30
Unclassed State Forest 0.73 4.95
Village Forest 0.27 1.83
Total 2.52 17.08

Table 3: Forest Area Managed by Forest Department

Category of Forests Area(million hectare) Percentage

Hill Forests 0.67 4.54
Natural Mangrove Forests 0.60 4.07
Mangrove Plantations 0.13 0.88
Plain Land Sal Forest 0.12 0.81
Total 1.52 10.30

The Hill Forest mainly situated in the district of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Rangamati, Khagrachari,
Bandarban and Sylhet. The total area of the Hill Forest is 670,000 hectare which accounts for 44% of
total area managed by the Forest Department and 4.54% of total area of Bangladesh.
Sundarbans, the world’s largest contiguous natural mangrove forest in Bangladesh covers an area of
6,017 sq. km which accounts for 4.07% of total area of Bangladesh and 40% of total area managed by
the Forest Department. The area covered by the three wildlife sanctuaries in the Sundarban is 1, 39,700
hectare that was declared as ‘World Heritage site’ by the UNESCO in 1997.
 Fig. Areas of forest coverage in Bangladesh

The plain land ‘Sal’ forest is situated mainly in the district of Gazipur, Tangail, Mymensingh, Sherpur,
Jamalpur, Netrokona, Naoga, Rangpur, Dinajpur and Panchagar. The total area of Sal Forest is 120,000
hectare which accounts for 0.81% of total area of Bangladesh and 7.89% of total area managed by the
Forest Department.
Forest types of Bangladesh on the basis of nature:
Types of forests Area (million ha.)
1. State forest
i. Hill forest 0.67
ii. Plain land Sal forest 0.12
iii. Mangrove forest
(a) Natural mangrove forest 0.60
(b) Coastal afforestation or plantation mangrove forest 0.13

2 Private forest
і. Homestead 0.27
іі. Rubber garden 0.07

Forest types of Bangladesh on the basis of ecological distribution:

1. Tropical moist evergreen forest

2. Tropical moist semi-evergreen forest

3. Tropical moist deciduous forest/Sal forest

4. Mangrove forest/Tidal forest

Tropical moist evergreen forest

Characteristics:
♣ The forest is rich in diversified types of plants.

♣ The plant of this forest are tall, some of which may attain 46-61 m height.

♣ The canopy of trees arranged in different layers.

♣ The average annual rainfall in this forest normally ranges from 3810-5080 mm.

♣ The forest contains at least 600 species of plants having huge no. of epiphytes, orchids, timber

trees, climbers, palms and ferns prevailing at various vertical strata.

Location: This forest is situated in the wet and humid areas of the greater districts of Chittagong Hill

Tracks, Sylhet, Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar.

Examples:
♣ Telia garjan : Dipterocarpus turbinatus ♣ Dumur : Ficus spp.

♣ Dhulia garjan : Dipterocarpus pilosus ♣ Gamar : Gmelina arborea

♣ Civit : Swintonia floribunda ♣ Chickrashi : Chickrasia tabularis

♣ Swarnachapa : Michelia champaka ♣ Boilum : Anisoptera scaphula

♣ Telsur : Hopea odorata ♣ Raktan : Lophopetalum fimbriatum

♣ Dhakijam : Syzygium grande ♣ Chatim : Alstonia scholaris

♣ Chapalish : Artocaropus chaplasha ♣ Jarul : Lagerstroemia speciosa

♣ Sil koroi : Albizia procera

Tropical Semi-evergreen forest

Characteristics:
♣ Evergreen species are the dominating trees; there is a mixture of deciduous species which
remain leafless during the winter.
♣ The average height of trees of this forest ranges from 25-27m.
♣ The climate is similar to that of evergreen forest.
Location: This forest is located in the dry and warmer areas of the greater districts of Chittagong Hill
Tracks, Chittagong and Sylhet.
Examples:
Evergreen species:
♣ baira garjan : Dipterocarpus scabber ♣ sheora : Streblus asper

♣ Kanak : Schima wallichii ♣ Menda : Litsea polyantha

♣ Teli garjan : Dipterocarpus turbinatus ♣ Dumar : Ficas spp

♣ Dhula garjan : Dipterocarpus pilusus ♣ Gamar : Gmelina arborea

♣ Civt : Swintonia floribunda ♣ Chickrashi : Chickrassia tabularis

♣ Champa : Mechelia champaka ♣ Boilum : Anisoptera scaphula

♣ Telsur : Hopea odorata ♣ Raktan : Lophopetalum fimbriatum

♣ Dhakijam : Syzygium grande ♣ Chatim : Alstonia scholaris

 ♣ Chapalish : Artocaropus chalasha ♣ Jarul :Lagerstroemia speciosa

♣ Sil koroi :Albizia procera

Deciduous trees:
♣ Simul : Bombax ceiba ♣ Bansimul : Salmalia insignis

♣ Dewa : Artocarpus lacucha ♣ Chapalish : A. chaplasha

♣ Hargoza : Dillenia pentagyna ♣ Bhadi : Lannea coromendelica

♣ Udal : Sterculia alata ♣ Bohera : Terminalia belerica

♣ Amloki : Emblica officinalis ♣ Amra : Spondias pinnata

♣ Haldu : Adina cordifolia

Tropical moist deciduous forest or Sal forest

Characteristics:
♣ The main species of this forest is Sal (Shorea robusta) and 90% area of this forest is covered
with the Sal trees.
♣ The abundance of Sal trees in this forest coined the name Sal forest.
♣ The Sal tree may attain a height of about 10-25 m and all the Sal trees remain leafless during
winter.
♣ In this forest, there are some raised lands and some low lying areas which are termed as ‘Chala’
and ‘Baid’, respectively.
♣ Average rainfall in this forest normally remains below 2000 mm.
Location: There are three major location of this forest.
1. Madhupur and Bhawal Range:
♣ Major part of this forest
♣ Located in Mymensingh, Tangail and Dhaka district
♣ It is about 100 km long in north-south direction and 10-40 km wide.
2. Slope plain basin of the Garo Hill:
♣ 2nd height part of this forest
♣ Located in greater Mymensingh district
♣ It is about 80 km long in east-west direction and 2-10 km wide
3. The third part of this forest is spread over Rangpur and Dinajpur districts which are severely
degraded and denuded. In the present day, due to encroachment and illegal settlement as well as illegal
felling of trees from this forest, it is on the verge of ruination.
Examples:
♣ Sal : Shorea robusta ♣ Shilkoroi : Albizia procera

♣ Haldu : Adina cordifolia ♣ Simul : Bombax ceiba

♣ Palash : Butea monosperma ♣ Hargoza : Dillenia pentagyna

♣ Kumvi : Careya arborea ♣ Menda : Litsea polyantha

♣ Bohera : Terminalia belerica ♣ Pitraj : Aphanomixis polystachya

♣ Horitoki : Terminalia chebula ♣ Amloki : Embelica officinalis

♣ Sonalu : Cassia fistula

Besides these, a large number of Eucalyptus, Akashmoni, Minjiri, Sissoo, Mangium species are
planted under social forestry program.
Mangrove or Tidal forest
Characteristics:
♣ The forest in tidal area is termed as Mangrove forest or tidal forest.
♣ The main species of this forest is Sunduri (Heritiera fomes), due the abundance of this species,
this forest is also known as Sundarbans.
♣ Sundarbans is the largest Mangrove forest all over the world.
♣ The soil is highly saline and it remains wet due to inundation of low lying areas 2 times
everyday.
♣ The forest is about 2 m above the sea level.
♣ Most of the trees have stilt roots and propagated by viviparous germination.
♣ All the plants growing in the forest are salt tolerant and evergreen.
Location: The natural mangrove is located at the southern part of Khulna districts and Chukoria of
Chittagong. Plantation mangrove forest has, however, been raised in the newly elevated ‘Char’ areas in
the entire southern coast of the country such as Cox’s Bazar, Chittagong, Noakhali, Bhola, Barguna,
Patuakhali etc.
Examples:
♣ Sunduri Heritiera fomes ♣ Bain Avicennia alba

♣ Geowa Exocoecaria agallocha ♣ Singhra Cynometra ramiflora

♣ Kakra Bruguiera gynnorrhiza ♣ Pasur Xylocarpus mekongensis

♣ Keora Sonneratia apelata ♣ Dakur Cerbera manghas

♣ Hental Phoenix paludosa ♣ Golpata Nypa fruticans

Types of mangrove forests: On the basis of salinity, topography, plant characteristics and ecological
features, the mangrove forest is divided into the following five categories:
1. Fresh water Heritiera forest (Sundarban)
2. Moderate water Heritiera forest
3. Saline water Heritiera forest
4. Tree mangrove forest
5. Low mangrove forest
1. Fresh water Heritiera Forest: The salinity of soil in this forest is very low or nil. This is particularly
true for the rainy season. In the dry season, however, salinity increases in the soil keeping it within a
tolerable range. The growth of plants Heritiera in particular, is excellent and may attain an average
height of about 30 cm. It is a fully formed climax forest gradually developed through usual process of
plant succession.
Location: North-eastern part of the Sundarban occupying the area between the Balewar and the Pasur
river.
Tree species: The main species is Sunduri (Heritiera jomes) and associated species are Geowa
(Excoecara agallocha), Kakra (Bruguiera gynorrhiza), Keora (Sonneratia apelata), Bain (Avicennia
alba), Sada Bain (A. alba Singhra), Singhra(Cynometra ramiflora), Bhola (Hibiscus tiliaceus), Pasur
(Xylocarpus mekongensis), Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum), Amur (Amoora cuculata), Dakur
(Cerbera manghas) etc.
2. Moderate salt water Heritiera forest: In this forest salinity is moderate and due to its situation near
the sea, it is regularly inundated by sea water. The tree height of this forest, Heritiera in particular is
less than of Fresh Water Heritiera Forest. The average height of trees varies from 15-20 m. The main
species of this forest is Gewa. This forest is also known as ‘Gewa-Sunduri-Pasur’ ban.
Location: This forest is situated in the middle and southern part of Sundarban.
Tree species: The main species is Gewa (Excoecaria agallacha) and associating trees are Sunduri,
Pasur, SadaBain, Kakra, Jhana or grajan (Rhizophara mucronata), Hental (Phooenix paludosa).
Golpata (Nypa fruticans), Dhundul, Keora, etc.
3. Saline water Heritiera forest: In this forest the salinity of soil and water is very high and as such the
growth and height of plants is small. The main species of this forest are Gewa and Gorna. Sunduri is
also grown here but with limited scale and its growth is miserably slow. The average height of trees
stands within 10-12 m.
Location: This forest is spread over the western part of Sundarban (the whole Satkhira range) and
south-western part (southern part of Khulna range).
Tree species: The main species are Gewa, Gorna (Ceriops decendrra), SadaBain, etc. Besides these,
the medium height plants like, Pasur, Dhundul, Kakra, etc, grows there.
4. Tree Mangrove forest: It is the saline swamp having muddy silted soil and standing water. Most of
the trees have still roots and the seeds show viviparous germination. They mostly belong to the family
Rhizophoraceae. Their average height ranges from 10-15 m.
Location: This forest is located in the newly developed ‘char’ near in the south and south-western part
of Sundarban.
Tree species: The main species are Garjan (Rhizophora mucronata), Saila (Sonnetatia caseolaris),
Kakra, Rohoni, etc.
5. Low mangrove forest: This is found in the outskirts of the Sundarban, where the soil is silty and
saline due to regular inundation of saline water. Small trees, shrubs, herbs and vines are growing there.
Location: Located at the outskirts of Sundarban besides the canals, especially at the northern border of
Sundarban.
Tree species: Mainly Hargoza (Acanthus ilicifolius) with associating plants like Golpata (Nypa
fruticans). Besides these, Nunia (Aegialitas rotundifolius), Ruhini (Kandelia candel), Khulshi
(Aegiceras corniculatum), Goran, Keuakata (Pandanus foetidus), Singra (Cynometra ramiflora), Nona
Jhau (Tamarix indica), etc. also grow there.
Similarities and dissimilarities among forestry, social forestry and agroforestry:
Conventional forestry Social forestry Agroforestry
1. It deals with only forest 1. Deals with both forest and 1. Deals with combination of trees
tree species fruit trees and agril. crops and/or animals
2. There is no people is 2. Peoples directly participated 2. People do this in their own land
participation and execute the program in
community places
 3. Peoples are not direct 3. Peoples are the direct 3. The produce is farmers own
beneficiary of the produce beneficiary property i.e. the question of share
from this forest benefit does not arise.
4. Activities is limited only to 4. It extends throughout the 4. Activities limited only to the
the Govt. forest land community places including farmers own land i.e. / in
Govt. forest also. homestead. farm land etc.
5. It provides raw materials 5. Provide raw materials of 5. It supplies foods. fuel, fodder
of the heavy industries small and cottage industries small timber etc. depending on the
need of the farmers
6. There is regional 6. It conserve the environment 6. Balanced and effective
limitations in conserving the effectively with certain environmental conservation is
environment limitations possible

Scope of Agroforestry in Bangladesh

Agroforestry is the most effective land use system from sustainable view point and is recognized
worldwide as the best productive system from which the rural poor people can meet their requirement
of food, fuel, fodder and other necessities. This has long been practiced by the farmers of Bangladesh
in haphazard manner. The homestead of rural people is a unique feature of combinations of trees,
shrubs, vegetable, livestock animals, and duck and poultry birds in association of trees of different
multipurpose values. Estimated 16.7 million homestead of the country occupy about 0.3 million
hectare of land (which is increasing sharply with the increase of population)in now under traditional
agroforestry practices. There is a great scope to manager and develop these homesteads with sound
sustainable technologies. Because the homesteads are providing the lion share of bio-fuel requirement
as well as fruit, fodder, timber and shelter for rural people. Besides the homestead, part of our cropper
land (net cropper area is 8085 m ha), 0.39 m ha current fallow land, 0.27 m ha culturable waste land,
3.29 m ha land which is not available for cultivation and encroached forest areas in Madhupur Sal
forest. CHTs forest along with the denuded hills of greater Chittagong region may bring under
agroforestry system. Utilizing appropriate agroforestry technologies in these areas the overall
production may be increased many folds.
 Terminology Commonly Used in Agroforestry

Agro-climate environment: Area with similar edaphic and climatic conditions.

Albedo: The ratio of reflected to incoming radiation, usually given in percent of vegetation or soil.
Alley cropping/ farming: Growing annual crops between rows of trees or shrubs, often leguminous ,
pruned materials from these is used as mulch around annual crops also as fodder and fuel wood.
Arid climate: Climate in regions that lack sufficient moisture for crop production without irrigation in
cool regions, annual precipitation is usually less than 25 cm. It may be as high as 50cm in tropical
regions. Natural vegetation is a desert shrub.
Biomass: The total weight at a given time of living trees or tree parts per unit area.
Bole: Bole is the main stem of tree, sometimes; it refers only to the lower part of the stem up to that
point where the main branches are given off
♣ Clear bole: A clear bole refers to that part of the bole, which is free from branches.
♣ Commercial bole: A commercial bole refers to the length of the bole that is ordinarily fit for
utilization as timber.
Brest Height: By international agreement, the point 1.3 meters from the ground on the bole of a tree.
Browse: The buds, shoots, leaves and flowers of woody plants, which are eaten by livestock or wild
animals.
Buffer: In biological systems, to regulate against sudden change.
Bounding: The arrangement of organic materials or soil in lines along the contour of a slope,to control
runoff or erosion.
By-product: Material produced as wastes in some agricultural, industrial or food preparation process,
may be used as feed or for other purpose.
Canopy: The upper layer of trees in a forest or a complex of trees.
Collar: The transition zone between root and shoot in a plant.
Community forestry:
♣ Community- executed tree planting programmes on common or public land with only limited
state input.
♣ A form of social forestry refers to tree planting activities undertaken by a community on
common lands the so-called common land.
♣ Community forestry is the practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area for
the benefits of the local population.
Contour: An imaginary line connecting point equal elevation on the surface of the soil. A contour
ditch is sometimes constructed along the contour to store and conserve water.
Coppicing: Cutting trees close or ground level in order to produce new shoots from the stump.
Cover crop: A close –growing primarily for purpose of protecting and improving between periods of
regular crop production or between trees and vies in orchards and plantations.
Crop residue: The portion of a plant or crop that is left in the field after harvest.
Crop: All Plants of a farm, which are planted and managed for economic purposes, producing a
physical product for farm use or sale. Multipurpose tree species (MPTs): Tree species purposely grown
to provide more than one significant product and/ or service.
Crown: The canopy or top of a single tree or other woody plant that carries its main branches and
leaves at the top of a fairly clean stem.
Deciduous plant: A plant that sheds all or most of its leaves every year at a certain season.
Deforestation: Disturbance, conversion, or wasteful destruction of forestlands.
Double cropping: Growing two crops in sequence or transplanting one after the harvest of the other.
Such practices are also called sequential cropping.
Ecology: A branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their
environments.
Ecosystems: All the plants and animals in a given area and their physical environments including the
interactions within them.
Environment: The circumstance by which one is surrounded, that acts upon an organism or an
ecological community and ultimately determines its form and survival.
Evergreen: Plants, which retain their leaves and remain green through out the year.
Exotic: A plant or animal species, which has been introduced outside its natural range. Opposite of
indigenous.
Farm forestry: Farm forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all aspects on farm or village
lands generally integrated with other operations.
Fodder: Parts of plants which are eaten by domestic animals, these may include leaves, stems, fruits,
pods, flowers etc.
Foliage: The mass of leaves of plants, usually used for trees or bushes.
Forage: Vegetative materials in a fresh or dried which is fed to livestock.
Germplasm: The sum of total hereditary materials in a species, i.e. the gene and cytoplasmic factors
governing inheritance; the hereditary material transmitted to offspring through the germ cells.
Herbaceous: Not woody, dyeing down each season.
Hedgerow or hedge: A closely planted line of shrubs or small trees.
Height: Vertical distance between the apical bud of a standing tree and ground level.
Homegarden: Traditional cropping practice around the house: usually includes fruit and fuel wood
trees, vegetables, root crops, poultry and smaller livestock and sometimes fishponds.
Humid : A climate in which rainfall exceeds potential evaporation, during 9 months a year and usually
more than 1500 mm annual rainfall.
Ideotype: A conceptual model of a plant that will be best suited to a particular set of circumstances.
Ideotypes can be defined in terms of both form and function. There can be isolation, competition and
crop ideotypes.
Increment: The increase in girth, height, volume, weight or value of individual trees or crops.
Indigenous: Native to a specific area not introduced.
Interface: The area where there is positive or negative interaction between two entities, such as
between a raw or trees and a raw of crops.
Land equivalent ratio (LER): The area needed under sole cropping to give as much produce as
one hectare of intercropping or mixed cropping at the same management level, expressed as a
ratio. LER is the sum of the ratios (or functions) of the intercrops relative to their sole crop yield.
Legume: Any plant species from the family leguminous (e.g. beans, peas), many of which have the
ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen via bacteria in or on their roots.
Litter: The uppermost layer of organic materials on the soil surface, including leaves, twigs, and
flowers freshly fallen or slightly decomposed.
Lopping: Cutting off one or more branches from a tree, whether standing, felled, or fallen.
Microclimate: The temperature, sunlight, humidity and other climatic conditions are a small localized
area (e.g. in a stand of trees).
Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same plot with no distinct
row arrangement.
Model: A quantities representation which, if complex may require algebraic or arithmetic
manipulation. Such models are essential elements of systems analysis, statistical analysis and many
forms of computer simulation.
Monoculture: Repeated growing of same crop on the same land.
Morphology: The form or outward shape of a plant.
Mulch: Plant or non-living materials used to cover the soil surface with the object of protecting the
soil from the impact of rainfall controlling weeds or moisture loss and in some cases, fertilizing the
soil.
Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year.
Multistoried: Relating to a vertical arrangement of plants so that they form distinct layer, from the
lower to the uppermost tree canopy.
Nodules: Nitrogen-fixing root swellings of characteristic shape and size for particular leguminous
species, which contain the bacterium Rhizobium spp. If effective, atmospheric nitrogen is fixed within
nodule and becomes readily utilized by the plant.
Origin: For an indigenous stands of trees the origin is the place in which the trees are growing. For a
non-indigenous stands, the origin is the place from which the seed or plants were originally introduced.
Pasture: A portion of land covered with grasses or grass legume mixtures suitable for grazing.
Perennials: Plants that continues their growth from year to year.
Phenology: Phenology refers to the seasonal changes in the development of foliage, flowering fruiting
etc. Species, locality climate conditions, etc. control phenological changes.
Pollarding: Cutting back the crown of a tree to in order to harvest wood and browse; to produce
regrowth beyond the reach of animals and/ or to reduce the shade cast by the crown.
Pruning: Cutting away of superfluous growth (including roots) from any plant so as to improve its
development, fruitfulness, etc.
Reforestation: Replanting of a forest, which has been chopped down or destroyed by fire?
Relay cropping. Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field such that one crop is
seeded after the other has flowered.
Root zone: Layer of soil interwoven by plant roots.
Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are planted
in rows.
Sapling: A young tree, no longer a seedling but not yet a pole, a few meters high and about 2.5 cm in
diameter at breast height. (Dbh)
Seedling: A young stage of a plant grown from a seed.
Semiarid: Regions or climates where moisture more plentiful than in arid regions but still limits the
growth of most crop plants. Natural vegetation in those areas is short grasses, shrubs and small trees.
Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a farming year.
The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. There is no intercrop
competition.
Shelter-belts: These are belts/blocks consisting of several rows of trees established at right angles to
the prevailing wind.
Shifting cultivation: A form of agriculture in which soil fertility is maintained by rotating fields rather
than crops. New plots are usually cleared by “slash and burn” and cropped until soil exhaustion. The
land is then left to regenerate naturally while cultivation is done elsewhere.
Shrub: A woody plant that remains less than 70 m tall and produces shoots or stems from its base.
Slope: The incline or angle of the land surface, which can be measured as a percent or ratio or in
degrees or grades.
Social forestry:
♣ State financed and supervised tree-planting programmes on common or public land.
♣ Social forestry is the practice of forestry, which aims at meeting the requirement of rural and
urban populations.
♣ Social forestry is the planting of trees to pursue social objectives, usually improvement of the
socio economic climate of the poor, through delivery of the benefits (of tree and/tree planting) to
the local people
Sole cropping: Growing one crop alone or in pure stand either as a single crop or as a sequence of
single crops within the year.
Stand: A community of trees possessing sufficient uniformity – in terms of composition, constitution,
age, spatial arrangement or condition – to be distinguishable from adjacent communities, so forming a
silvicultural or management entity.
Stem: A stem of a plant is the principle axis of it on which buds and shoots are developed.
Stress: Any factor that disturbs the normal functioning of an organism.
Strip intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in strips, wide enough to permit
independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact agronomically.
Stump: Planting stock in which the shoot and root have been cut back (usually to a shoot of 2 or 3
centimeters and a root of 10 to 20 centimeters) to produce easily transported propagules.
Sub humid: In the tropics, a climate with average annual rainfall of 900- 1500 mm.
Taungya: The intercropping of agricultural crops during the first years of forest plantation
establishment.
Terraces: Soil and water conservation structures on sloping lands to reduce the runoff of soil and
water down the slope.
Topography: The physical description of land: changes in elevation due to hills, valleys and other
features.
Topography: The physical description of land: changes in elevation due to hills, valleys and other
features.
Tree: A woody perennial plant species having a single elongated main stem, generally with few or no
branches on its lower part.
Understory: The lower layer of vegetation often grasses, shrubs or crops that grow under taller
vegetation.
Watershed: A unit of landscape that contains all the drainage areas and channels contributing to a
single stream or river system.
♣ Watershed is a geohydrological unit or a place of land that drains at a common point.
♣ A tertiary stream or river is a tributary of Secondary River having a drainage area of 4 to 40
thousand hectares. The drainage area of such a stream river is called a Watershed.
♣ A quarternary stream is a tributary of tertiary having a drainage area between 2 to 4 thousand
hectares. Such a drainage area is called a Sub-Watershed.
♣ A pentad streamlet is a tributary of a quarternary having a drainage area between 400-2000
hectares. Such a drainage area is called a Mini-Watershed.
♣ A hexad streamlet is a tributary to a pentad having a drainage area of less than 400 hectares.
Such a drainage area is called a Micro-Watershed.
Wind-breaks: Wind-breaks are strips of trees and/or shrubs planted to protect fields, homes, canals or
other areas from wind and blowing soil or sand.
Yield: The quantity of a specified product or plant component harvested on a particular area over a
specified period of time.