Discrete Mathematics (MTH202)

LECTURE # 21

First of all instead of giving the definition of Recursion we give you an example, you
already know the Set of Odd numbers Here we give the new definition of the same set
that is the set of Odd numbers.
Definition for odd positive integers may be given as:
BASE:
1 is an odd positive integer.
RECURSION:
If k is an odd positive integer, then k + 2 is an odd positive integer.
Now, 1 is an odd positive integer by the definition base.
With k = 1, 1 + 2 = 3, so 3 is an odd positive integer.
With k = 3, 3 + 2 = 5, so 5 is an odd positive integer
and so, 7, 9, 11, … are odd positive integers.

REMARK: Recursive definitions can be used in a “generative” manner.

RECURSION:
The process of defining an object in terms of smaller versions of itself is called recursion.
A recursive definition has two parts:
1.BASE:
An initial simple definition which cannot be expressed in terms of smaller
versions of itself.
2. RECURSION:
The part of definition which can be expressed in terms of smaller versions of
itself.
RECURSIVELY DEFINED FUNCTIONS:
A function is said to be recursively defined if the function refers to itself such that
1. There are certain arguments, called base values, for which the function does not refer
to itself.
2. Each time the function does refer to itself, the argument of the function must be closer
to a base value.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose that f is defined recursively by
f(0) = 3
f(n + 1) = 2 f (n) + 3
Find f(1), f(2), f(3) and f(4)
SOLUTION:
From the recursive definition it follows that
f(1) = 2 f(0) + 3 = 2(3) + 3 = 6 + 3 = 9
In evaluating of f(1) we use the formula given in the example and we note that it involves
f(0) and we are also given the value of that which we use to find out the functional value
at 1. Similarly we will use the preceding value
In evaluating the next values of the functions as we did below.
f(2) = 2 f(1) + 3 = 2(9) + 3 = 18 + 3 = 21
f(3) = 2 f(2) + 3 = 2(21) + 3 = 42 + 3 = 45
f(4) = 2 f(3) + 3 = 2(45) + 3 = 90 + 3 = 93

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Discrete Mathematics (MTH202)

EXERCISE:
Find f(2), f(3), and f(4) if f is defined recursively by
f(0) = -1, f(1)=2 and for n = 1, 2, 3, …
f(n+1) = f(n) + 3 f(n - 1)
SOLUTION:
From the recursive definition it follows that
f(2) = f(1) + 3 f (1-1)
= f(1) + 3 f (0)
= 2 + 3 (-1)
= -1
Now in order to find out the other values we will need the values of the preceding .So we
write these values here again
f(0) = -1, f(1)=2 f(n+1) = f(n) + 3 f(n - 1)
f(2) = -1
By recursive formula we have
f(3) = f(2) + 3 f (2-1)
= f(2) + 3 f (1)
= (-1) + 3 (2)
=5
f(4) = f(3) + 3 f (3-1)
= f(2) + 3 f (2)
= 5 + 3 (-1)
=2
THE FACTORIAL OF A POSITIVE INTEGER:
For each positive integer n, the factorial of n denoted n! is defined to be the product of all
the integers from 1 to n:
n! = n·(n - 1)·(n - 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
Zero factorial is defined to be 1
0! = 1
EXAMPLE:
0! = 1 1! = 1
2! = 2·1 = 2 3! = 3·2·1 = 6
4! = 4·3·2·1 = 24 5! = 5·4·3·2·1 = 120
6! = 6·5·4·3·2·1= 720 7! = 7·6·5·4·3·2·1= 5040
REMARK:
5! = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 5 ·(4 · 3 · 2 · 1)
= 5 · 4!
In general,
n! = n(n-1)! for each positive integer n.
THE FACTORIAL FUNCTION DEFINED RECURSIVELY:
We can define the factorial function F(n) = n! recursively by specifying the initial value
of this function, namely, F(0) = 1, and giving a rule for finding F(n) from F(n-1).{(n! =
n(n-1)!}
Thus, the recursive definition of factorial function F(n) is:
1. F(0) = 1

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2. F(n) = n F(n-1)
EXERCISE:
Let S be the function such that S(n) is the sum of the first n positive integers. Give a
recursive definition of S(n).
SOLUTION:
The initial value of this function may be specified as S(0) = 0
Since
S(n) = n + (n - 1) + (n - 2) + … + 3 + 2 + 1
= n + [(n - 1) + (n - 2) + … + 3 + 2 + 1]
= n + S(n-1)
which defines the recursive step.
Accordingly S may be defined as:
1. S(0)= 0
2. S(n) = n + S(n - 1) for n ≥ 1

EXERCISE:
Let a and b denote positive integers. Suppose a function Q is defined recursively as
follows:
(a) Find the value of Q(2,3) and Q(14,3)
(b) What does this function do? Find Q (3355, 7)
SOLUTION:
 0 if a 〈b
Q ( a, b) = 
Q(a − b, b) + 1 if b ≤ a

(a) Q (2,3) = 0 since 2 < 3

Given Q(a,b) = Q(a-b,b) + 1 if b ≤a
Now
Q (14, 3) = Q (11,3) + 1
= [Q(8,3) + 1] + 1 = Q(8,3) + 2
= [Q(5,3) + 1] + 2 = Q(5,3) + 3
= [Q(2,3) + 1] + 3 = Q(2,3) + 4
=0+4 (∴ Q(2,3) = 0)
=4
(b) if a 〈b
0
Q ( a , b) = 
Q(a − b, b) + 1 if b ≤ a
Each time b is subtracted from a, the value of Q is increased by 1. Hence Q(a,b) finds the
integer quotient when a is divided by b.
Thus Q(3355, 7) = 479
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:
The Fibonacci sequence is defined as follows.
F0 = 1, F1 = 1
Fk = Fk-1 + Fk-2 for all integers k ≥ 2

F2 = F1 + F0 = 1 + 1 = 2

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F3 = F2 + F1 = 2 + 1 = 3
F4 = F3 + F2 = 3 + 2 = 5
F5 = F4 + F3 = 5 + 3 = 8
.
.
.
RECURRENCE RELATION:
A recurrence relation for a sequence a0, a1, a2, . . . , is a formula that relates each term ak
to certain of its predecessors ak-1, ak-2, . . . , ak-i ,
where i is a fixed integer and k is any integer greater than or equal to i. The initial
conditions for such a recurrence relation specify the values of
a0, a1, a2, . . . , ai-1.
EXERCISE:
Find the first four terms of the following recursively defined sequence.
b1 = 2
bk = bk-1 + 2 · k, for all integers k ≥ 2

\
SOLUTION:
b1 = 2 (given in base step)
b2 = b1 + 2 · 2 = 2 + 4 = 6
b3 = b2 + 2 · 3 = 6 + 6 = 12
b4 = b3 + 2 · 4 = 12 + 8 = 20
EXERCISE:
Find the first five terms of the following recursively defined sequence.
t0 = – 1, t1 = 1
tk = tk-1 + 2 · tk-2, for all integers k ≥ 2
SOLUTION:

t0 = – 1, (given in base step)

t1 = 1 (given in base step)
t2 = t1 + 2 · t0 = 1 + 2 · (–1) = 1 – 2 = –1
t3 = t2 + 2 · t1 = –1 + 2 · 1 = –1 + 2 = 1
t4 = t3 + 2 · t2 = 1 + 2 · (–1) = 1 – 2 = –1
EXERCISE:
Define a sequence b0, b1, b2, . . . by the formula
n
bn = 5 , for all integers n ≥ 0.
Show that this sequence satisfies the recurrence relation bk = 5bk – 1, for all integers
k ≥ 1.

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Discrete Mathematics (MTH202)

SOLUTION:
The sequence is given by the formula
n
bn = 5
Substituting k for n we get
k
bk = 5 . . . . . (1)
Substituting k – 1 for n we get
k-1
bk-1 = 5 . . . . . (2)
Multiplying both sides of (2) by 5 we obtain
k
5 · bk-1 = 5 · 5 – 1
k
= 5 = bk using (1)
Hence bk = 5bk-1 as required
EXERCISE:
n
Show that the sequence 0, 1, 3, 7, . . . , 2 – 1, . . . , for n ≥ 0, satisfies the recurrence
relation
dk = 3dk-1 – 2dk-2, for all integers k ≥ 2
SOLUTION:
The sequence is given by the formula
n
dn = 2 – 1 for n ≥ 0
k-1
Substituting k – 1 for n we get dk-1 = 2 –1
k-2
Substituting k – 2 for n we get dk-2 = 2 – 1
We want to prove that
dk = 3dk-1 – 2dk-2
k k
R.H.S. = 3(2 – 1 – 1) – 2(2 – 2 – 1)
k k
=3·2 –1–3–2·2 –2+2
k k
=3·2 –1–2 –1–1
k
= (3 – 1) · 2 – 1 – 1
k k
=2·2 –1–1= 2 –1=d = L.H.S.
k
THE TOWER OF HANOI:
The puzzle was invented by a French Mathematician Adouard Lucas in 1883. It is well
known to students of Computer Science since it appears in virtually any introductory text
on data structures or algorithms.
There are three poles on first of which are stacked a number of disks that decrease in size
as they rise from the base. The goal is to transfer all the disks one by one from the first
pole to one of the others, but they must never place a larger disk on top of a smaller one.
Let mn be the minimum number of moves needed to move a tower of n disks from one
pole to another. Then mn can be obtained recursively as follows.

• m1 = 1
• mk = 2 mk-1 + 1
m2 = 2 · m1 + 1 = 2 · 1 + 1 = 3

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m3 = 2 · m2 + 1 = 2 · 3 + 1 = 7
m4 = 2 · m3 + 1 = 2 · 7 + 1 = 15
m5 = 2 · m4 + 1 = 2 · 15 + 1 = 31
m6 = 2 · m5 + 1 = 2 · 31 + 1 = 65

Note that
n
mn = 2 – 1
64
m64 = 2 – 1
≅ 584.5 billion years
USE OF RECURSION:
At first recursion may seem hard or impossible, may be magical at best. However,
recursion often provides elegant, short algorithmic solutions to many problems in
computer science and mathematics.
Examples where recursion is often used
• math functions
• number sequences
• data structure definitions
• data structure manipulations
• language definitions

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