Paper: Fundamentals of Information Communication Technology

Notes prepared by- Sandip Das, Siliguri College

Unit 1: Introduction to Computers

A computer is an electronic device that processes data by following a set of instructions
(called a program) to perform a wide range of tasks. It can input, store, process, and output
data, making it useful for everything from simple calculations to complex problem-solving.
Key Components:
• Input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse): Allow users to enter data.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The "brain" of the computer that performs
calculations and instructions.
• Memory/storage (e.g., RAM, hard drive): Stores data and instructions temporarily or
permanently.
• Output devices (e.g., monitor, printer): Display the results of processing.
Types of Computers:
• Personal computers (PCs)
• Laptops
• Tablets
• Servers
• Supercomputers
• Embedded systems (found in appliances, cars, etc.)

The main characteristics of a computer:

1. Speed
Computers can process data and perform calculations at incredibly high speeds, often in
fractions of a second (measured in nanoseconds or milliseconds).
2. Accuracy
Computers perform tasks with a high degree of accuracy. Errors usually occur due to human
input or software bugs, not the computer itself.
3. Automation
Once programmed, a computer can execute tasks automatically without human intervention.
4. Storage
Computers can store vast amounts of data and instructions for both short-term (RAM) and
long-term (hard drive, SSD) use. Data can be easily retrieved when needed.
5. Versatility
A computer can perform a wide variety of tasks—from word processing to playing music,
browsing the internet, or running scientific simulations—just by changing the software.
6. Diligence
Unlike humans, a computer does not suffer from fatigue or boredom. It can perform repetitive
tasks consistently without loss of performance.
7. Multitasking
Modern computers can run multiple programs at the same time (e.g., browsing the web while
playing music and downloading files).
8. Communication
Computers can communicate with other devices and systems through networks, enabling
sharing of data and resources (e.g., via the Internet).

The evolution of computers can be divided into five generations, each marked by major
technological advancements. Here's an overview:

First Generation (1940–1956): Vacuum Tubes

• Technology Used: Vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
• Size: Very large, often room-sized.
• Speed: Slow and generated a lot of heat.
• Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.
• Limitations: Expensive, unreliable, consumed a lot of power.

Second Generation (1956–1963): Transistors

• Technology Used: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
• Advancement: Smaller, faster, more reliable, and energy-efficient.
• Programming Language: Used assembly and early high-level languages (e.g.,
COBOL, FORTRAN).
• Example: IBM 1401, CDC 1604.

Third Generation (1964–1971): Integrated Circuits

• Technology Used: Integrated Circuits (ICs) – multiple transistors on a single chip.
• Size: Much smaller and more powerful.
• Speed: Increased processing speed and storage.
• Example: IBM System/360.
• Advancements: Used keyboards and monitors with operating systems.

Fourth Generation (1971–Present): Microprocessors

• Technology Used: Microprocessors (thousands of ICs on a single chip).
• Examples: Intel 4004, Apple Macintosh, IBM PC.
• Advancement: Personal computers (PCs), GUI, networking, portable devices.
• Impact: Rapid development in software, internet, and applications.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Technology Used: AI, machine learning, quantum computing, and nanotechnology.
• Goal: Develop systems that can learn and make decisions like humans.
• Examples: Voice assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa), self-driving cars, IBM Watson.
• Trend: Focus on parallel processing and superintelligent machines.

Explanation of Components:
1. Input Unit
oDevices: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.
oFunction: Takes data and instructions from the user and sends them to the
CPU.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The "brain" of the computer.
o
Control Unit (CU): Directs operations of all other components.
o
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic and logical
o
operations.
3. Memory Unit
oIncludes RAM (main memory) and sometimes ROM.
oTemporarily stores data and instructions during processing.
4. Output Unit
o Devices: Monitor, printer, speakers, etc.
o Function: Displays or outputs the processed data from the computer to the
user.

Classification of Computer

a) Analog Computers
• Work with continuous data.
• Used for scientific and engineering purposes.
• Example: Speedometers, analog clocks.
b) Digital Computers
• Work with binary data (0s and 1s).
• Most common type of computer today.
• Example: PCs, laptops.
c) Hybrid Computers
• Combine features of analog and digital computers.
• Used in hospitals, scientific research, etc.
• Example: ICU monitoring systems
Input Units
Input units are devices that allow users to input data and instructions into a computer
system.
1. Keyboard
• Most common input device.
• Contains keys for letters, numbers, symbols, and function keys.
Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboard – Standard layout.
2. Multimedia Keyboard – Includes additional keys for volume, internet, etc.
3. Wireless Keyboard – Uses Bluetooth or RF.
4. Ergonomic Keyboard – Designed to reduce strain.
5. Virtual Keyboard – On-screen keyboard on touch devices.

2. Terminals
Terminals are hardware devices used to input and output data to and from a computer system.
Types of Terminals:
1. Dumb Terminal – No processing power; only inputs and displays data.
2. Smart Terminal – Can process limited data; includes some internal logic.
3. Intelligent Terminal – Has its own processor and memory; can run software.
4. Remote Terminal – Accesses a central system from a distant location.

3. Pointing Devices
Used to move a pointer on the screen.
Examples:
1. Mouse – Standard pointing device.
2. Trackball – Like an upside-down mouse; used in CAD applications.
3. Touchpad – Common in laptops.
4. Joystick – Used in gaming and simulations.
5. Stylus Pen – Used with tablets for precise input.
6. Light Pen – Used on CRT displays for drawing or selecting.

4. Scanners
Scanners convert physical documents or images into digital form.
Types of Scanners:
1. Flatbed Scanner – Most common; like a photocopier.
2. Handheld Scanner – Portable, used for barcodes or books.
3. Sheet-fed Scanner – Feeds sheets one at a time.
4. Drum Scanner – High resolution; used in publishing.
 5. Barcode Scanner – Reads barcodes on products.

5. Voice Recognition Systems

• Converts spoken words into text or commands.
• Used in virtual assistants, dictation software, etc.
Types:
1. Speaker-dependent – Trained to understand a specific user.
2. Speaker-independent – Can understand speech from any user.
3. Discrete Speech Recognition – Requires pausing between words.
4. Continuous Speech Recognition – Allows normal speech flow.

6. Vision Input Systems

• Uses cameras and sensors to interpret visual information.
• Used in facial recognition, motion detection, and OCR (Optical Character
Recognition).
Applications:
• Surveillance
• Robotics
• Augmented Reality (AR)
• Industrial inspection

7. Touch Screen
• Allows users to interact directly with the screen using fingers or a stylus.
Types of Touch Screens:
1. Resistive – Pressure-sensitive, works with gloves or stylus.
2. Capacitive – Uses electrical properties of the human body.
3. Infrared – Uses light beams; durable and accurate.
4. Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) – Uses sound waves on the screen surface
 Unit 2: Storage Organization
Primary Storage in a computer refers to the memory that is directly accessible by the CPU
and is used to store data and programs that are currently in use. It is fast, volatile, and
temporary, meaning that it loses its contents when the power is turned off.

Types of Primary Storage

RAM (Random Access Memory)
o Function: Stores data and instructions for currently running programs.
o Volatile: Loses data when power is off.
o Fast access speed
o Example: DDR4, DDR5
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
o Function: Stores permanent instructions like firmware or BIOS.
o Non-volatile: Retains data even when the computer is turned off.
o Cannot be easily modified or rewritten.

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a type of non-volatile

memory, meaning it retains its data even when the power is turned off. Unlike standard
ROM, PROM can be programmed by the user after manufacturing — but only once.

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. It is a type of non-

volatile memory that can be programmed by the user and erased for re-use.

Secondary storage refers to non-volatile, long-term data storage in a computer. It is used to

store operating systems, applications, documents, files, and other data permanently, even
when the computer is turned off.
Magnetic tape is a type of sequential-access, non-volatile storage medium used primarily
for backup, archiving, and large-scale data storage. It stores data on a thin strip of plastic
film coated with magnetic material.
Magnetic disks are a type of non-volatile storage medium that store data using magnetic
patterns. They allow direct/random access to data, making them more flexible and faster
than magnetic tapes. Magnetic disks are widely used in personal computers, servers, and data
centers.
Cartridge tape is a magnetic tape storage medium enclosed in a protective cartridge. It is
used primarily for data backup, archiving, and long-term storage, especially in business
and enterprise environments.
A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a widely used non-volatile magnetic storage device in
computers. It stores the operating system, applications, and user data. HDDs have been a
mainstay of digital storage since the 1950s and remain popular due to their high capacity
and low cost per gigabyte.
A floppy disk is a type of magnetic storage medium used in computers primarily from the
1970s to early 2000s. It consists of a thin, flexible magnetic disk enclosed in a plastic shell
and was once a standard portable storage device for transferring files, installing software,
and backing up small amounts of data.
Optical disks are non-volatile storage media that store data using laser technology. They
are commonly used for storing music, videos, software, and backups. Optical disks include
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs, each offering different storage capacities and use cases.

A Zip Drive is a removable storage device developed by Iomega in the mid-1990s. It was
designed to offer more storage capacity than the standard floppy disk, while remaining
portable. The Zip Drive was widely used for data storage, backups, and file transfers
during the late 1990s and early 2000s but has since been largely replaced by USB drives and
other forms of portable storage.
Network storage refers to storage systems that are accessible over a network rather than
directly connected to a computer. Example – Google drive

Unit 3: Software – OS and Application

Software refers to a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a computer how
to perform specific tasks. Unlike hardware, which is the physical part of the computer,
software is the intangible part that runs on hardware to make it functional.

Needs:
1. To Perform Tasks and Functions.
2. To Manage and Control Hardware.
3. To Facilitate Communication.
4. To Improve Productivity and Efficiency.
5. To Provide Entertainment.
6. To Protect Systems and Data.

System software refers to a collection of programs designed to manage and control the
computer hardware, providing a platform for running application software. It acts as an
intermediary between the user and the hardware of the computer, ensuring that hardware
resources are properly utilized and managed.

An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between a user
and the computer hardware. It manages hardware resources, facilitates the execution of
application software, and provides a user interface for interacting with the system. The OS
ensures the efficient and coordinated use of the computer's resources, including the CPU,
memory, storage devices, and input/output devices.

A programming language is a formal set of instructions used to produce a wide range of

outputs, such as software applications, algorithms, data processing, and more. It is the
medium through which humans communicate with computers to perform specific tasks, such
as processing data, solving problems, and automating processes.
Machine language (also called machine code or binary code) is the lowest-level
programming language that is directly understood by a computer's central processing unit
(CPU). It consists of binary code — sequences of 0s and 1s — that represent the instructions
the CPU executes. Since it is written in binary, it is the only language that is directly executed
by the hardware without needing translation or interpretation.

Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is closely related to machine

language, but it provides a more readable and human-understandable way of writing
instructions for a computer. It is a symbolic representation of machine language instructions,
which makes it easier for humans to write and understand.
High-level programming languages (HLLs) are languages that are designed to be easy for
humans to read and write. These languages are closer to human languages than to machine
language or assembly language, which makes them highly abstracted from the underlying
hardware. High-level languages are designed to be easy to learn, understand, and use, which
is why they are the most commonly used languages for software development today.
Advantages:
Ease of Use and Readability, Abstraction from Hardware, Probability, Development speed,
Error detection and debugging, Productivity and efficiency.
Disadvantages:
Slower execution speed, less control over hardware, Memory overhead, Large executable
size.

Unit 4: IT in Action
Information Technology (IT) involves the use of computers, software, and
telecommunications to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data. The applications of IT
span across nearly every sector of human activity, driving innovations, increasing efficiency,
and transforming how individuals and businesses function.

Telemedicine refers to the use of telecommunications technology to provide healthcare

services remotely. It enables patients and healthcare providers to communicate, diagnose,
and treat health conditions without the need for in-person visits. Through telemedicine,
healthcare becomes more accessible, particularly for those in rural or underserved areas,
people with limited mobility, or during situations like pandemics (e.g., COVID-19).

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool that allows users to

capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and visualize spatial and geographic data. GIS
integrates cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology to analyze and present
information in ways that are more accessible and useful for decision-making.

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of physical objects or devices embedded
with sensors, software, and other technologies, allowing them to connect and exchange data
over the internet or other networks. IoT enables these devices to collect, send, and receive
data, creating a system where devices can communicate with each other and with humans,
often autonomously, to improve efficiency, convenience, and productivity.