PHYSICS

CHAPTER 14: SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Classification of Metals:

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity

1
(ρ = ), the solids are broadly classified as:
σ
Metals:

They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).

ρ ∼ 10−2 − 10−8 Ω m
σ ∼ 102 − 108 S m−1
Semiconductors:

They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.

ρ ∼ 10−5 − 106 Ω m
σ ∼ 105 − 106 S m−1
Insulators:

They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).

ρ ∼ 1011 − 1019 Ω m
σ ∼ 10−11 − 10−19 S m−1
Classification of Metals on the Basis of Energy Bands:

When the atoms come together to form a solid they are so close to each other that
the fields of electrons of outer orbits from neighboring atoms overlap. This makes the
nature of electron motion in a solid very different from that in an isolated atom. Inside
the solid, each electron has a unique position, and no two electrons have same
pattern of surrounding charges.

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Metals:

In metals, conduction band and valence band are overlapped to each other. The
electrons from the valence band can easily move into the conduction band. Normally,
the conduction band is empty but when it overlaps on the valence band, electrons can
move freely into it, and it conducts electric current through it.

Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are the core fundamental materials which are used in solid-state
electronic devices such as transistors, diodes etc. The material’s atomic structure
decides whether the material will turn out to be a metal, semiconductor, or insulator.
Semiconductors could also be elements such as Ge, Si or compounds such as CdS or
GaAs.

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Insulators:

In semiconductors, a small and finite energy band gap exists. Because of the small
energy band gap some electrons from valence band, at room temperature, acquire
enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These
electrons are very few and can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of
semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:

The pure semiconductors in which the electrical conductivity is totally governed by the
electrons excited from the valence band to the conduction band and in which no
impurity atoms are added to increase their conductivity are called intrinsic
semiconductors and their conductivity is called intrinsic conductivity. Electrical
conduction in pure semiconductors occurs by means of electron-hole pairs. In an
intrinsic semiconductor,

ne = nh = ni

where ne = the free electron density in conduction band, n h = the hole density in
valence band, and ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Extrinsic Semiconductors:

A Semiconductor doped with suitable impurity atoms so as to increase its conductivity

is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

Types of Semiconductor:
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Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types:

n-type semiconductors:

The pentavalent impurity atoms are called donors because they donate electrons to
the host crystal and the semiconductor doped with donors is called n-type
semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority charge carriers
and holes are the minority charge carriers. Thus, n e ≫ nh

p-type semiconductors:

The trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptors because they create holes which can
accept electrons from the nearby bonds. A semiconductor doped with acceptor type

impurities is called a p-type semiconductor. In p-type semiconductor, holes are the

majority carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers Thus,

nh ≫ n e

Diode:
Diodes are being for the purpose of AC voltage rectification which means restricting
the voltage to follow one direction only using a capacitor or a filter, a dc voltage can
be achieved.

The types of diodes are:

Zener Diode: This is used in places where voltage regulation is needed.

P-N junction diode: It is used in photonic or optoelectronic devices and the entity is
the photon. Examples are solar cells, light-emitting diodes etc.

Holes:

The vacancy or absence of electron in the bond of a covalently bonded crystal is called
a hole. A hole serves as a positive charge carrier.

p-n Junction Formation:

In the n-region of a p-n junction, the concentration of free electrons is higher than
that of holes, whereas in the p-region, the concentration of holes is much higher than
that of free electrons. Therefore, when a p-n junction is formed, some electrons from
the n-region will diffuse into the p-region. Since the hole is nothing but the vacancy of
an electron, an electron diffusing from the n- to the p-region simply fills this vacancy,
i.e., it completes the covalent bond. This process is called electron-hole

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recombination.

Semiconductor Diode:

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at

the ends for the application of an external voltage. The symbol for the simplest
electronic device, namely the p-n junction is shown as. The direction of the thick arrow
is from the p to the n-region. The p-side is called the anode and the n-side is known as
the cathode.

Forward Biasing of a pn-junction:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal to the n-side, then the pn-junction is said to be forward biased. Both
electrons and holes move towards the junction. A current, called forward current,
flows across the junction. Thus, a pn-junction offers a low resistance when it is
forward biased.

Reverse Biasing of a pn-junction:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side and negative terminal to
the p-side, then pn-junction is said to be reverse biased. The majority charge carriers
move away from the junction. The potential barrier offers high resistance during the

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reverse bias. However, due to the minority charge carriers a small current, called
reverse or leakage current flows in the opposite direction. Thus, junction diode has
almost a unidirectional flow of current.

Characteristics of Junction Diode:

With increasing forward bias, the current first increases non-linearly up to a certain
forward-biased voltage called knee voltage or cut-in voltage and beyond which the
current varies non-linearly.

Diode as Rectifier:
The process of converting alternating voltage/ current into direct voltage/ current is
called rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for converting alternating current/
voltage into direct current/ voltage.

There are two ways of using a diode as a rectifier i.e.

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Half-wave Rectifier:

Let during the first half of AC input cycle, the end A of secondary S of transformer be
at positive potential and end B at the negative potential. In this situation, the diode is
forward biased and a current flow in the circuit. Consequently, an output voltage
across load RL is obtained.

During the second half of AC input, the end A of secondary S of transformer is at

negative potential and diode D is in reverse bias. So, no current flows through load R L
and there is no output voltage across R L.

In the next positive half-cycle of AC input, we again get the output and so on. Thus, we
get output voltage as shown in Fig. Here, the output voltage, though still varying in
magnitude, is restricted to only one direction, and is said to be rectified. Since, the
rectified output of the circuit is obtained only for half of the input AC wave, the device
is called half-wave rectifier.

Full-wave rectifier:

During the first half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal A is positive with respect
to O while B is negative with respect to O. Diode first is forward bias and conducts
while diode second is reverse bias and does not conduct, the current flow through RL
from D To O. During the second half cycle, A is negative, and B is positive with respect
to O, thus diode first is reverse bias and diode second is forward biased. The current
through RL is in the same direction as during the first half cycle. The resulting output
current is a continuous series.

As we are getting output in positive half as well as negative half of AC input cycle, the

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rectifier is called a full wave rectifier. Obviously, this is a more efficient circuit for
getting rectified voltage or current than a half wave rectifier.

Zener diode:

The specially designed junction diodes which can operate in the reverse breakdown
voltage region continuously without being damaged, are called Zener diodes.

Photodiode:

A junction diode made from photosensitive semiconductor is called a photodiode. In

photodiode one region is made so thin that incident light may reach the depletion
region.

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Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

Light-emitting diode is a heavily doped p-n junction encapsulated with a transparent

cover so that emitted light can come out. When the forward current of the diode is
small the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity
of light increases and reaches a maximum.

Solar cell:

In a solar cell, one region is made very thin so that most of the light incident on it
reaches the depletion region. In this diode when photons of visible light incident to
depletion region, electrons jump from valence band to conduction band producing
electron-hole pairs.

Action of a transistor:

When the emitter-base junction of an n-p-n-transistor is forward biased, the electrons

are pushed towards the base. As the base region is very thin and lightly doped, most
of the electrons cross over to the reverse biased collector. Since few electrons and
holes always recombine in the base region, so the collector current I c is always slightly
less then emitter current IE.

IE = IC + IB
Where IB is the base current.

Digital Electronics and Logic Gates:

There are three basic logic gates:

(i) OR gate (ii) AND gate, and (iii) NOT gate.

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NOT Gate:

This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces an inverted
version of the input at its output i.e., it produces a ‘1’ output if the input is ‘0’ and vice
versa. This is why it is also known as an inverter.

AND gate:

An AND gate can have any number of inputs but only one output. It gives a high
output (1) if inputs A and B are both high (1), or else the output is low (0). It is
described by the Boolean expression.

A.B = Y

Which is read as ‘A and B equals Y.

Combination of Gates:

The NAND gate:

If the output Y' of AND gate is connected to the input of NOT gate, the gate so
obtained is called NAND gate. Boolean expression for the NAND gate is Y = ̅̅̅̅̅
A. B
The NOR gate:

If the output (Y') of OR gate is connected to the input of a NOT gate, the gate so
obtained is called the NOR gate. Boolean expression for the NOR gate is Y = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A + B.
Integrated Circuits:

The concept of fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of many passive components

like R and C and active devices like diode and transistor) on a small single block (or
chip) of a semiconductor has revolutionized the electronics technology. Such a circuit
is known as Integrated Circuit (IC).

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Important Questions

Multiple Choice questions-

1. In the figure, assuming the diodes to be ideal,

A. D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence current flows from A
to B.
B. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows
from B to A and vice versa.
C. D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current flows from A to B.
D. D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current flows from A to B
and vice versa.
2. Hole is:
A. an anti-particle of electron.
B. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond.
C. absence of free electrons.
D. an artificially created particle.
3. For the depletion region of a diode which one is incorrect?
A. There are no mobile charges.
B. Equal number of holes and electrons exists, making the region neutral.
C. Recombination of holes and electrons has taken place.
D. Immobile charged ions exist.
4. To reduce the ripples in a rectifier circuit with capacitor filter which one is
false?
A. RL should be increased.
B. Input frequency should be decreased.
C. Input frequency should be increased.
D. Capacitors with high capacitance should be used.

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5. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are
characterised by valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap
respectively equal to (Eg)C, (Eg)Si and (Eg) Ge. Which of the following
statements is true?
A. (Eg)Si < (Eg)Ge < (Eg)C
B. (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge > (Eg)Si
C. (Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge
D. (Eg)C = (Eg)Si = (Eg)Ge
6. In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region
because:
A. free electrons in the n-region attract them.
B. they move across the junction by the potential difference.
C. hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
D. All the above.
7. In a p-n junction diode, change in temperature due to heating:
A. affects only reverse resistance
B. affects only forward resistance
C. Does not affect resistance of p-n junction
D. affects the overall V-I characteristics of p-n junction
8. A specimen of silicon is to be made p-type semiconductor for this one atom of
indium, on an average, is doped in 5 × 107 silicon atoms. If the number density
of silicon is 5 × 1022 atoms m-3, then the number of acceptor atoms per cm³ will
be:
A. 2.5 × 1030
B. 1.0 × 1013
C. 1.0 × 1015
D. 2.5 × 1036
9. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as shown in the figure below.
The current flowing through the resistance R 1 will be:

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A. 1.43 A
B. 3.13 A
C. 2.5 A
D. 10.0 A
10. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The value of current flowing through AB
is:

A. 0A
B. 10-2A
C. 10-1 A
D. 10-3 A

Very Short Questions:

1. Give the ratio of number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in
an intrinsic semiconductor.
2. What type of impurity is added to obtain n-type semiconductor?
3. Doping of silicon with indium leads to which type of semiconductor?
4. Draw an energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor.
5. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6×108m−3. On
doping with a certain impurity electron concentration increases to 3×1012m−3.
Identify the type of semiconductor after doping.
6. How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped
with a trivalent impurity?
7. How does the width of the depletion layer of p-n-junction diode change with
decrease in reverse bias?
8. Under what condition does a junction diode work as an open switch?

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9. Which type of biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance?

10. If the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed as the input to a NOT gate,
a) name the new logic gate obtained and
b) write down its truth table

Short Questions :
1. If the frequency of the input signal is f. What will be the frequency of the
pulsating output signal in case of :
(i) half wave rectifier?
(ii) full wave rectifier?
2. Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure between point A
and B when the p-n junction diode is ideal and :
(i) A is at higher potential
(ii) B is at higher potential

3. Potential barrier of p.n. junction cannot be measured by connecting a sensitive

voltmeter across its terminals. Why?
4. The diagram shows a piece of pure semiconductor S in series with a variable
resistor R and a source of constant voltage V. Would you increase or decrease
the value of R to keep the reading of ammeter A constant, when
semiconductor S is heated? Give reason.

5. Why is a photo diode used in reverse bias?

6. What is an ideal diode? Draw the output wave form across the load resistor R,
if the input waveform is as shown in the figure.

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7. With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain full wave rectification using
junction diode. Draw input and output wave forms?
8. Name the gate shown in the figure and write its truth table?

9. In the following diagrams indicate which of the diodes are forward biased and
which are reverse bias?

10. In the given figure, is

(i) The emitter base
(ii) collector base forward or reverse biased? Justify.

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Long Answers Q.:
1. Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis
of energy band diagrams?
2. The following truth table gives the output of a 2-input logic gate.

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3.
A B Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

Identify the logic gate used and draw its logic symbol. If the output of this
gate is fed as input to a NOT gate, name the new logic gate so formed?
4. With the help of a diagram, show the biasing of a light emitting diode (LED).
Give its two advantages over conventional incandescent lamps?
5. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 665. Its base current is changed
by 15 A, which results in the change in collector current by 2mA. This
transistor is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of
5k. Calculate current gain ( ac).
6. Draw the symbol for zener diode? Zener diodes have higher dopant densities
as compared to ordinary p-n junction diodes. How dos it affect the (i) width of
the depletion layer (i) junction field?
7. A P-N-P transistor is used in common – emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A
change of 4oA in the base current brings a change of 2mA in collector
current and 0.04V in base – emitter voltage. Find (i) input resistance (ii)
current amplification factor ( ). If a load resistance of 6k is used, then find
voltage gain?
8. A semiconductor has equal electron and whole concentration of 6 × 108 / m3.
On doping with certain impurity, electron concentration increases to 8 × 1012
/ m3.
(i) Identify the new semiconductor
(ii) Calculate the new whole concentration.
(iii) How does the energy gap vary with doping?
9. Draw a labeled circuit diagram of a common emitter transistor amplifier.
Draw the input and the output wave forms and also state the relation
between input and output signal?

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10. In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap E g is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is
much smaller than electron mobility and independent of temperature. What
is the ratio between conductivity at 600K and that at 300K? Assume that the
temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration n i is given by

where n0 is a constant.
11. In a p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as

where I0 is called the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the
diode and is positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias, and I is
the current through the diode, k is the Boltzmann constant (8.6 × 10-5 eV/K)
and T is the absolute temperature. If for a given diode I 0 = 5 × 10-12 A and T =
300 K, then
(a) What will be the forward current at a forward voltage of 0.6 V?
(b) What will be the increase in the current if the voltage across the diode is
increased to 0.7 V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance?
(d) What will be the current if reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V to 2 V?
Assertion and Reason Questions –
1. Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason
(R). Select the correct answer to these questions from thecodes(a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false and R is also false.
Assertion: The ratio of free electrons to holes in intrinsic semiconductor is greater
than one.
Reason: The electrons are lighter particles and holes are heavy particles.

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2. Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason
(R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes(a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false and R is also false.
Assertion: : The half-wave rectifier work only for positive half cycle of ac.
Reason: In half-wave rectifier only one diode is used.
Case Study Questions –
1. Solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts solar energy into electric energy. It
is basically a solar energy converter. The upper layer of solar cell is of p-type
semiconductor and very thin so that the incident light photons may easily reach the
p-n junction. On the top face of p-layer, the metal finger electrodes are prepared in
order to have enough spacing between the fingers for the lights to reach the p-n
junction through p-layer.
(i) The schematic symbol of solar cell is:

(ii) The p-n junction which generates an emf when solar radiations fall an it, with
no external bias applied, is a:
a) Light emitting diode.
b) Photodiode.
c) Solar cell.
d) None of these.
(iii) For satellites the source of energy is:
a) Solar cell.
b) Fuel cell.
c) Edison cell.
d) None of these.

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(iv) Which of the following material is used in solar cell?

a) Barium.
b) Silicon.
c) Silver.
d) Selenium.
(v) The efficiency of a solar cell may be in the range:
a) 2 to 5%
b) 10 to 15%
c) 30 to 40%
d) 70 to 80%
2. P-n junction is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such a manner that one half
portion of it acts asp-type semiconductor and other half functions as n-type
semiconductor. As soon as a p-n junction is formed, the holes from the p-region
diffuse into then-region, and electron from n region diffuse in top-region. This results
in the development of V 8 across the junction which opposes the further diffusion of
electrons and holes through the junction.
(i) In an unbiased p-n junction electrons diffuse from n-region top-region
because:
a) Holes in p-region attract them.
b) Electrons travel across the junction due to potential difference.
c) Electron concentration inn-region is more as compared to that in p-
region.
d) Only electrons move from n top region and not the vice-versa.
(ii) Electron hole recombination in p-n junction may lead to emission of:
a) Light.
b) Ultraviolet rays.
c) Sound.
d) Radioactive rays.
(iii) In an unbiased p-n junction:
a) Potential at pis equal to that at n.
b) Potential at pis + ve and that at n is - ve.
c) Potential at pis more than that at n.
d) Potential at pis less than that at n.
(iv) The potential of depletion layer is due to:
a) Electrons.
b) Holes.
c) Ions.

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d) Forbidden band.
(v) In the depletion layer of unbiased p-n junction,
a) It is devoid of charge carriers.
b) Has only electrons.
c) Has only holes.
d) P-n junction has a weak electric field.
Multiple Choice question’s Answers –
1. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows
from B to A and vice versa.
2. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent bond.
3. There are no mobile charges.
4. Input frequency should be decreased.
5. (Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge
6. hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
7. affects the overall V-I characteristics of p-n junction
8. 1.0 × 1015
9. 2.5 A
10. 10-2A

Very Short Answers :

1.

2. Pentavalent atoms (group -15) like Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), etc.
3. Doping of Silicon with Indium produces a p-type semiconductor as Indium is a
trivalent impurity.
4. In intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh
The energy level diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

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5. According to the question, after doping, n e > nh.

Clearly, we get an n-type semiconductor after doping.
6. An acceptor energy level is formed in the forbidden energy gap above the
valence band when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a trivalent
impurity.
Due to this, electrons quickly jump to the acceptor energy level.
7. The width of the depletion layer will decrease with decrease in reverse bias.
8. A junction diode works as an open switch when it is connected under reverse
bias conditions.
9. Reverse biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance.
10.
a) An AND gate is obtained when the output of a 2-input NAND gate is fed
as the input to a NOT gate.
b) Truth table for an AND gate is given below.
A B Y
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

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1 1 1

Short Answers:
1. Frequency of output in half wave Rectifier is f and in full have rectifier is 2f.
2. Equivalent resistance is
(i) 10
(ii) 20
3. Because there is no free charge carrier in depletion region.
4. On heating S, resistance of semiconductors S is decreased so to compensate
the value of resistance in the circuit R is increased.
5. In this case diode is sensitive and it gives very large amount of current in this
situation.
6. An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and an infinite
resistance when it is reverse biased. Output wave from is:

7. Full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and a transformer with central tap.
For any half cycle of a.c. input only one diode is forward biased where as the
other one is reverse biased.

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Suppose for positive half of a.c. input diode D 1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased, then the current will flow across D 1 where as for negative half
of a.c. input diode D2 is forward biased and the current flows across D 2 .Thus
for both the halves output is obtained and current flows in the same direction
across load resistance R2 and thus a.c. is converted into d.c.
8. It is AND gate and its truth table is:

9. (a) Forward Biased

(b) Reverse Biased
(c) forward Biased
10. Figure shows n-p-n transistor
(ii) Emitter is reversed biased because n-region is connected to higher
potential.
(iii) Collector is also reversed biased because n-region of p-n junction is at
higher potential than p-region.
Long Answers:

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1.
Conductor – Conduction band in a conductor is either partially filled or
conduction and valence band overlaps each other. There is no energy gap in a
conductor.

Insulators – conduction band and valence band of all insulator are widely
separated by and energy gap of the order 6 to 9eV Also conduction band of
an insulator is almost empty.

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Semiconductor – In semiconductors the energy gap is very small i.e. about

1ev only.

2. The gate is NOR gate. If the output of NOR gate is connected to a NOT gate

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then the figure will be:

New truth table is:

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3. Light emitting diode is forward biased i.e. energy is released at the junction.

Advantages of LED
1) They are used in numerical displays as compact in size.
2) It works at low voltage and has longer life than incandescent bulbs.
4.
(1) Trans conductance (gm) (2) voltage gain (Av) of the amplifier.

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5. Symbol for zener diode

(i) Width of the depletion layer of zener diode becomes very small due to
heavy doping of p and n-regions
(ii) Junction field will be high..
6. Ans:

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7.
(i) New semiconductor obtained is N-type because

(ii) Energy gap decreases due to creation of donor level in between the
valence band and the conduction band.
8. Diagram:

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Relation – output waveform has 180o phase reversal as compared to input

and also the
output is being amplified.
9. Energy gap of the given intrinsic semiconductor, Eg = 1.2 eV
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier-concentration is written
as:

Where KB = Boltzmann constant = 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K

T = Temperature
n0 = Constant
Initial temperature, T1 = 300 K
The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:

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Final temperature, T2 = 600 K

The intrinsic carrier-concentration at this temperature can be written as:

The ratio between the conductivities at 600 K and at 300 K is equal to the
ratio between the respective intrinsic carrier-concentrations at these
temperatures.

Therefore, the ratio between the conductivities is 1.09 × 105.

10. In a p-n junction diode, the expression for current is given as:

Where,
I0 = Reverse saturation current = 5 × 10-12 A
T = Absolute temperature = 300 K

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KB = Boltzmann constant = 8.6 × 10-5 eV / K = 1.376 × 10-23 JK-1

V = Voltage across the diode
(a) Forward voltage, V = 0.6 V

Therefore, the forward current is about 0.0256 A.

(b) For forward voltage, V' = 0.7 V, we can write:

Hence, the increase in current, ΔI = I' - I

= 1.257 - 0.0256 = 1.23 A
(c)

(e) If the reverse bias voltage changes from 1 V to 2 V, then the current (I) will
almost remain equal to I0 in both cases. Therefore, the dynamic resistance
in the reverse bias will be infinite.
Assertion and Reason Answers –
1. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
Explanation:
𝑛𝑒
In intrinsic semiconductor = 𝐼 and holes are not particles but vacancies created
𝑛ℎ
due to breakage of covalent bond.
2. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

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Explanation:
In half wave rectifier, the one diode is biased only when ac is in positive half of its
cycle. For negative half of the ac cycle the diode is reversed biased and there is no
output corresponding to that. Since for only one-half cycle we get a voltage output,
because of which it is called half wave rectifier.
Case Study Answers –
1. Answer :
(i) (a)

(ii) (c) Solar cell.

(iii) (a) Solar cell.
Explanation:
Solar cells are the source of energy for satellites.
(iv) (b) Silicon.
Explanation:
Silicon is used in solar cell.
(v) (b) 10 to 15%
2. Answer :
(i) (c) Electron concentration inn-region is more as compared to that in p-region.
Explanation:
Electron concentration in n-region is more as compared to that in p-region. So
electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side.
(ii) (a) Light.
Explanation:

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When an electron and a hole recombine, the energy is released in the form of
light.
(iii) (a) Potential at pis equal to that at n.
Explanation:
In an unbiased p-n junction, potential at p is equal to that at n.
(iv) (c) Ions.
Explanation:
The potential of depletion layer is due to ions.
(v) (a) It is devoid of charge carriers.
Explanation:
In the depletion layer of unbiased p-n, junction has no charge carriers.ssss

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