BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech.

Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

MODULE – 1 – INTRODUCTION & ENERGY

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industry

Mechanical engineers are involved in almost every aspect of human existence
and welfare, including machines, cars and other vehicles, aircraft, power plants,
automobile parts, and manufacturing plants etc.

A Mechanical Engineer plays a significant role in designing, developing, and

testing machines as well as thermal devices. It also includes systems that are
essential to many aspects of modern society and Industries.

Mechanical engineering role is very essential for industries such as paper

industries, textile industries, automobile industries, food industries etc. They use
their knowledge of mechanics, thermodynamics, materials science, and energy to
create solutions that improve the quality of life of people.

Besides, the role of a mechanical engineer in our society is contributed as:

 Power Generation: Mechanical engineers design and develop power-
generating machines such as internal combustion engines, gas turbines, and
steam and wind turbines etc

 Heating and Cooling Systems: They design and develop heating,

ventilation, refrigeration and air conditioning systems for buildings and other
structures.

 Transportation: Mechanical engineers are involved in designing and

developing transportation systems, including cars, trains, airplanes,
steamers and boats.

 Industrial Equipment: They design, develop and maintain industrial

equipment such as machine tools, robots, and conveyor systems & belts

 Infrastructure: Mechanical engineers play a key role in the design and

maintenance of infrastructure, including buildings, bridges, roads, and
transportation systems.

Overall, Mechanical Engineers are involved in designing, building, and

maintaining the engines, machines, and structures that make modern life possible
and comfortable.

They contribute to society by using their skills to improve the safety, security,
efficiency, and comfort of the systems and devices that we rely on every day.

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Emerging Trends and Technologies in Different Sectors:

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Energy Sectors:
 Renewable Energy: The transition to renewable energy sources, such as
solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, continues to gain momentum.
Governments, businesses, and individuals are increasingly investing in
renewable energy projects as they become more cost-effective and
environmentally friendly.

 Energy Storage: Advancements in energy storage technologies, particularly

in batteries, are essential for maximizing the potential of renewable energy
sources. Large-scale battery storage systems and innovations in battery
chemistry are helping to address the intermittent nature of renewables and
enable grid stability.

 Smart Grids: Smart grid technologies are being implemented to improve the
efficiency, reliability, and flexibility of energy distribution. By incorporating
digital communication and automation, smart grids can optimize energy
consumption and integrate renewable energy sources more effectively.

 Electric Vehicles (EVs): The adoption of electric vehicles is rising rapidly

due to advancements in battery technology, improved charging infrastructure,
and environmental concerns. This trend is leading to increased demand for
electricity and influencing the overall energy landscape.

 Energy Efficiency and Demand Response: Energy efficiency measures,

along with demand response programs, are becoming integral to reducing
energy consumption and managing peak demand. Smart appliances, home
automation systems, and energy-efficient technologies are being widely
adopted.

 Decentralized Energy Systems: Decentralized energy systems, including

microgrids and distributed energy resources (DERs), are gaining traction.
These systems allow communities and businesses to generate and manage
their energy locally, reducing reliance on centralized power plants.

 Internet of Things (IoT) and Energy Management: The integration of IoT

devices and sensors is enabling more precise monitoring and control of
energy usage. IoT-driven energy management solutions are helping
consumers and industries optimize their energy consumption.

 Hydrogen Economy: Hydrogen is gaining attention as a clean energy

carrier. Advances in hydrogen production, storage, and transportation
technologies are promoting its use in various sectors, such as transportation
and industrial processes.

 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): CCS technologies aim to capture

carbon dioxide emissions from industrial processes or power plants and store
them underground to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.

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 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning: AI and machine

learning applications are being leveraged to optimize energy production,
predict energy demand, enhance grid stability, and improve energy efficiency.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Manufacturing Sectors:

 Industry 4.0 and Smart Manufacturing: Industry 4.0, often referred to as
the fourth industrial revolution, is characterized by the integration of digital
technologies into manufacturing processes. This includes the use of IoT
devices, sensors, data analytics, and artificial intelligence to create
interconnected and intelligent manufacturing systems.

 Internet of Things (IoT) in Manufacturing: IoT plays a crucial role in

gathering real-time data from various manufacturing processes and
equipment. Connected sensors and devices enable manufacturers to monitor
performance, optimize operations, and predict maintenance needs.

 Advanced Robotics and Automation: Robotics and automation are

becoming more sophisticated and versatile in the manufacturing industry.
Collaborative robots (cobots) work alongside human workers, increasing
productivity and improving workplace safety.

 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing): 3D printing is transforming the

manufacturing landscape by enabling rapid prototyping, customization, and
decentralized production. This technology is particularly valuable for producing
complex and low-volume parts.
 Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): AR and VR applications
are being used in manufacturing for training, assembly guidance, and
maintenance. These technologies enhance worker skills and improve process
efficiency.

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning: AI and machine

learning are applied in manufacturing for predictive maintenance, quality
control, supply chain optimization, and process automation.

 Digital Twin Technology: Digital twins are virtual replicas of physical assets,
products, or processes. Manufacturers use digital twins to simulate and
optimize production processes, predict performance, and improve product
design.

 Sustainable Manufacturing: Environmental sustainability is gaining

prominence in the manufacturing sector. Companies are adopting green
practices, such as resource-efficient production processes, recycling, and
reducing waste.

 Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology is being applied to manufacturing for

enhanced materials and products with unique properties, such as increa sed
strength, flexibility, and conductivity.

 Cyber security in Manufacturing: As manufacturing becomes more

connected and data-driven, cyber security is becoming a critical consideration

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to protect intellectual property, trade secrets, and sensitive information.

 Cloud Computing and Big Data Analytics: The use of cloud computing and
big data analytics enables manufacturers to process vast amounts of data,
optimize production, and make data-driven decisions.

 Advanced Materials: Advancements in materials science are leading to the

development of novel materials with improved properties, such as lightweight
composites, high-strength alloys, and conductive polymers.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Automotive Sectors:

 Electric Vehicles (EVs): The adoption of electric vehicles continues to grow
as battery technology improves, charging infrastructure expands, and
governments offer incentives to promote sustainable transportation. EVs are
becoming more accessible and offering longer driving ranges.

 Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving or autonomous vehicles are being

developed and tested by various automotive companies and technology firms.
Advancements in AI, sensor technology, and machine learning are making
autonomous vehicles safer and more viable for mass adoption.

 Connected Cars: Connectivity is transforming the driving experience. Cars

equipped with internet connectivity enable features such as real-time
navigation, remote diagnostics, over-the-air updates, and integration with
smart home devices.

 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): ADAS technologies, such as

adaptive cruise control, lane-keeping assist, and automated emergency
braking, are becoming more common in modern vehicles, enhancing safety
and reducing accidents.

 Shared Mobility and Ride-Hailing: Ride-hailing services and car-sharing

platforms are disrupting the traditional car ownership model. Consumers are
increasingly embracing shared mobility solutions for convenience and cost -
effectiveness.

 Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Communication: V2X technology allows

vehicles to communicate with other vehicles, infrastructure, pedestrians, and
the surrounding environment. This connectivity enhances safety, traffic
management, and overall efficiency on the roads.

 Sustainable Materials and Manufacturing: The automotive industry is

exploring sustainable materials, such as recycled plastics and bio-based
components, to reduce the environmental impact of vehicle production.

 Augmented Reality (AR) in Automotive: AR applications are being

developed to enhance the driving experience, improve navigation, and provide
virtual assistance for vehicle maintenance and repairs.

 Vehicle Electrification and Hybridization: Beyond full electric vehicles,

there is an increasing focus on hybrid vehicles, combining int ernal combustion
engines with electric powertrains to improve fuel efficiency and reduce

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emissions.

 Vehicle Cyber security: As vehicles become more connected and

autonomous, ensuring their cyber security becomes crucial to prevent hacking
and unauthorized access to critical systems.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Aerospace Sectors:

 Electric and Hybrid Propulsion: Aerospace manufacturers are exploring
electric and hybrid propulsion systems for aircraft, especially for short -haul
and urban air mobility applications. These systems aim to reduce emissions
and noise while improving efficiency.

 Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF): There is a growing emphasis on

developing and implementing sustainable aviation fuels made from renewable
sources. SAF offers the potential to significantly reduce carbon emissions in the
aviation industry.

 Advanced Materials: Aerospace companies are investing in advanced

materials, such as composites, carbon fiber, and additive manufacturing (3D
printing) techniques, to reduce the weight of aircraft, improve fuel efficiency,
and enhance overall performance.

 Urban Air Mobility (UAM): UAM refers to the concept of using electric
vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) vehicles for short-distance urban
transportation. Several companies are working on eVTOL prototypes for aerial
taxis and transportation services.

 Autonomous Aircraft: Similar to the automotive industry, the aerospace

sector is exploring autonomous aircraft, also known as unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) or drones, for applications such as cargo delivery and
surveillance.

 Additive Manufacturing in Aerospace: 3D printing is being increasingly

used to produce complex and lightweight parts for aircraft, leading to faster
prototyping, reduced costs, and improved design flexi bility.

 Space Tourism: The emerging space tourism industry aims to offer

commercial spaceflight experiences to private individuals. Several companies
are developing spacecraft and suborbital flights for space tourists.

 Reusable Space Launch Vehicles: Reusable rockets and space launch

vehicles are gaining traction, aiming to reduce the cost of space access and
make space missions more economically viable.

 Hypersonic Flight: Aerospace companies and governments are investing in

hypersonic flight technologies, which enable aircraft to travel at speeds greater
than Mach 5. These technologies have potential applications in military and
civilian sectors.

 Space Exploration: Continued advancements in space exploration

technologies, such as Mars rovers, deep-space probes, and space telescopes,
are expanding our understanding of the universe and driving future space

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missions.
 Space Debris Mitigation: Efforts to address the growing issue of space debris
are becoming more critical to ensure the long-term sustainability of space
activities and avoid collisions with existing satellites and spacecraft.

Emerging Trends and Technologies in Marine Sectors:

 Autonomous and Unmanned Vessels: The marine industry is exploring
autonomous and unmanned vessel technologies for various applications,
including cargo shipping, surveying, ocean exploration, and maritime security.

 Electric and Hybrid Propulsion: Similar to the automotive and aerospace

sectors, there is an increasing focus on electric and hybrid propulsion systems
for marine vessels to reduce emissions and improve fuel efficiency.

 Alternative Fuels: The marine industry is exploring alternative fuels, such as

liquefied natural gas (LNG), hydrogen, and ammonia, as more
environmentally friendly options compared to traditional fos sil fuels.

 Marine Biotechnology: Marine biotechnology involves the application of

marine organisms and substances for various industrial purposes, such as
pharmaceuticals, bio-fuels, and biomaterials.

 Underwater Robotics: Underwater remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and

autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are being used for deep-sea
exploration, offshore maintenance, and subsea research.

 Marine Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence: Advanced data

analytics and AI applications are being used to optimi ze shipping routes,
improve vessel performance, and enhance maritime safety.

 Digitalization and Smart Ports: Ports are becoming more digitized and
interconnected, utilizing IoT devices, sensors, and data analytics to enhance
port operations, optimize cargo handling, and improve overall efficiency.

 Marine Spatial Planning: Marine spatial planning involves the systematic

allocation of marine resources and activities to promote sustainable use and
conservation of marine ecosystems.

 Offshore Wind Energy: The development of offshore wind farms is

expanding rapidly, providing a renewable and clean energy source and
supporting the global transition to sustainable power generation.

 Marine Pollution Mitigation: The marine sector is actively working on

solutions to mitigate pollution, such as oil spill response technologies and
strategies to reduce plastic waste in the oceans.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

ENERGY

Review of Energy Sources;

 Energy is defined as the ability or the capacity to do work.

 At is the primary requirement for the day to day activities of human begins
 Energy produces electricity from which we can cook, food, either our homes,
make computers, televisions and machine work
 Energy moves cars, buses, motor cycles, trains, trucks and planes
 Most of the energy that we have using now comes from natural sources like
coal ,oil, natural gas and water that are being used from a very long time
 However, coal and oil are used in large quantities compared to other sources
 This creates a necessity to find and develop alternative, energy resources that
can be meet the energy demands
 Some of the alternative energy sources include solar radiation, fuel cells, wind
energy, geothermal energy, ocean thermal energy, tidal energy, biomass etc.

Classification of energy resources

The various energy resources available in nature can be classified into two types
 Renewable energy resources
 Non-renewable energy resources

Renewable energy sources

Energy resources that are produced continuously in nature and that will not get
exhausted eventually in future are called renewable energy sources.

Renewable energy resources include

Solar energy – It is the heat energy radiated from the sun

Hydel energy – Energy obtained from water

Wind energy – Energy from the flow of wind

Geothermal energy – It is the heat energy stored deep inside the earth

Tidal energy – it is the energy obtained from the tides in oceans

Ocean thermal energy – it is the heal energy obtained from the surface of water in
oceans

Biomass energy – Energy obtained from the organic matter of plants and animals

Non renewable energy resources

The energy resource that get exhausted eventually in future are classified as non
renewable energy resources

Non – renewable energy resources include

 Fossil fuels : Ex: coal, petroleum, coal gas and natural gas
 Nuclear fuels : Ex: Uranium

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Comparison

Renewable Energy Non - Renewable Energy

1.These are inexhaustible Ex. Solar 1. These are exhaustible

energy, wind energy etc. Ex. coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
2. Not freely available I and also not
2. Freely available I nature and
environment friendly
environment friendly (expect biomass)
3. These sources once used cannot be
3.They are cautiously restored by nature
recovered any mare
after utilization
4. Both initial and maintenance costs are
4.Initial cost for utilization of energy
high
sources in high but maintenance cost is
5. Continuous supply of energy is
low
possible with non- Renewable energy
5. Availability of energy is intermittent
resources
and hence continuous supply of energy is
not possible

Introduction to Energy Sources - Fossil Fuel

Energy sources like fossil fuels have been extensively used for various applications
over the years due to their abundance and high energy density. Some common
applications of fossil fuels include:

 Electricity Generation: Fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and oil, are
used to generate electricity in power plants. These power plants use the
combustion process to produce high-temperature steam, which drives
turbines connected to generators, producing electrical power.

 Transportation: Fossil fuels, especially petroleum-based products like

gasoline and diesel, power most vehicles, including cars, trucks, airplanes, and
ships. These fuels are widely used in the transportation sector due to their
high energy content and portability.

 Heating and Cooling: Fossil fuels are used for residential and commercial
heating purposes. Oil and natural gas are commonly used in furnaces and
boilers to provide heat for buildings during colder months. Additionally, fossil
fuels can also be used in air conditioning systems to provide cooling through
electricity generation.

 Industrial Processes: Many industrial processes rely on fossil fuels as a

source of heat for various applications, such as melting metals, drying
materials, and powering industrial machinery.

 Cooking: In some parts of the world, fossil fuels like coal and wood are still
used for cooking and food preparation, particularly in rural areas where
alternative energy sources may be limited.

 Chemical Production: Fossil fuels serve as feedstocks for the production of

various chemicals and petrochemicals used in the manufacturing of plastics,

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fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other products.

Despite their widespread use, the burning of fossil fuels contributes significantly to
greenhouse gas emissions, leading to climate change and environmental degradation.
As a result, there has been a growing global shift towards cleaner and more
sustainable energy sources, such as renewable energy (e.g., solar, wind, hydro,
geothermal) and nuclear power, to reduce the carbon footprint and mitigate the
impacts of climate change.

Thermal Power plant:

A thermal power plant is a facility that generates electricity by converting heat
energy into electrical energy. It typically involves the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, oil, or natural gas to produce high- temperature steam, which is then used to
turn turbines connected to generators. Here are the main components and the
working principle of a thermal power plant:

Components of a Thermal Power Plant:

 Boiler: The boiler is where fuel (such as coal, oil, or natural gas) is burned to
produce high-temperature and high-pressure steam. The heat energy generated
by the combustion process is transferred to the water, which turns it into steam.

 Steam Turbine: The steam turbine is a device that converts the thermal
energy of the high-pressure steam into mechanical energy. The pressurized
steam causes the turbine blades to rotate.

 Generator: The generator is connected to the steam turbine and converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. It uses the principle
of electromagnetic induction to generate electricity.

 Condenser: After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure steam is

condensed back into water using a condenser. The condensation process
releases heat, which is usually removed by cooling water from a nearby water
source or a cooling tower.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

 Cooling System: The cooling system, which can include cooling towers or
cooling ponds, is responsible for dissipating the excess heat generated during
the condensation process.

 Feed water Pump: The feed water pump is used to supply water from the
condenser to the boiler. This water is preheated before entering the boiler to
improve efficiency.

Working Principle of a Thermal Power Plant:

 Combustion: Fossil fuels like coal, oil, or natural gas are burned in the boiler,
producing high- temperature gases. The combustion releases heat energy.

 Steam Generation: The heat energy from the combustion process is

transferred to the water in the boiler, causing it to boil and produce high-
pressure steam.

 Steam Expansion: The high-pressure steam is directed to a steam turbine,

where it expands and pushes the turbine blades, causing the turbine to rotate.

 Mechanical to Electrical Conversion: As the steam turbine rotates, it drives

the generator, which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy
through electromagnetic induction.

 Condensation: After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure steam is

condensed back into water in the condenser, releasing heat in the process.

 Cooling and Feed water: The excess heat is dissipated through the cooling
system, and the condensed water is pumped back to the boiler through the
feed water pump to restart the cycle.

The cycle repeats, with the continuous combustion of fossil fuels, steam
generation, turbine rotation, and electricity generation. It's important to note that
while thermal power plants are widely used, they produce greenhouse gas emissions
and contribute to environmental concerns. As a result, there has been a push toward
cleaner and more sustainable energy sources and technologies.

Advantages:
• Power production does not depend the on the nature mercy.
• Initial investment is low.
• Plant can be installed near the load center, so the transmission cost and losses
are very low.

Disadvantages;
• Life and efficiency is very less.
• Transportation of fuel is a major power in this type of power plant.
• Power generation cost is considerable high when compared to hydro power
plant.
• Air pollution is the major problem.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

Basic Working Principles of Hydel Power Plant:

Hydropower, also known as hydel energy or hydroelectric power, harnesses the

energy of flowing or falling water to generate electricity. Here are some of the key
applications of hydropower:

 Electricity Generation: The primary application of hydropower is for

electricity generation. Large-scale hydropower plants are constructed on rivers
or water reservoirs, where the potential energy of the water is converted into
electrical energy by passing it through turbines connected to generators.
These power plants can supply a significant amount of electricity to the grid,
providing a reliable and renewable energy source.
 Water Supply and Irrigation: Some hydropower projects are designed to
serve dual purposes. Besides Electricity generation, these projects also
provide water storage and management for irrigation, municipal water supply,
and other water-related needs. These projects can help manage water
resources efficiently and promote agricultural development.

Explain how electric energy is generated using hydel power using

hydro power plant:
Hydro power Hydro energy is the energy available from flowing water. The
hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for
generation of electricity from water on large scale basis

Hydro electric Power Plants: In hydroelectric power plants the potential

energy of water due to its high location is converted into electrical energy. The total
power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants depends on the head
of water and volume of water flowing towards the water turbine.

DAM/RESERVOIR
The dam is built across the large river that has sufficient quantity of water
throughout the river. In certain cases where the river is very large, more than one
dam can built across the river at different locations. The rain water flowing as river
can be stored behind dams and released in a regulated way to generate hydro power.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

PENSTOCK:
It is the pipeline which connects the dam water to the turbine blades.

TURBINE:
It converts the kinetic energy of water into rotary mechanical energy.

GENERATOR:
It converts the rotary or mechanical energy into electrical energy
POWER HOUSE:
It consists of both Turbine and the Generator

DRAFT TUBE:
It is a pipe having gradual increase in cross sectional area which is used to
discharge the water from the turbine to the tail race after it rotates the turbine
blades, the gradual increase of pipe area is to maintain the pressure difference.

Working Principle of Hydroelectric power plant

 The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:
1. The kinetic energy due to flow of water and
2. Potential energy due to the height of water.

 In hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate

electricity. Total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power
plants due to its height

 The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical

energy in water turbine. The water is allowed to flow through penstock. At the
end of penstock a convergent nozzle is present to increase the velocity of
flowing water and it is allowed to hit on the turbine blades. The runner blades
are arranged over a shaft hence the shaft is rotated. The shaft is connected to
Generator for the production of electricity.

 The mechanical energy produced by the water turbine is converted into

electrical energy.

 After doing useful work, water is discharged from the turbine to the river
through the tail race through a draft tube.

Merits: -
 Environmental friendly source,
 large scale power generation
 energy at free of cost.

Demerits: -
 Expensive to build the dam
 summer water may not sufficient to produce electricity.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

Solar Power Plant

Solar power plants harness the energy of sunlight to generate electricity through a
process called photovoltaics (PV). Here's a basic overview of how solar power plants
work:

 Solar Panels (PV Modules): The core components of a solar power plant are
the solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) modules. These panels consist
of many solar cells made of semiconductor materials such as silicon. When
sunlight strikes these cells, it excites electrons, generating a flow of electricity.
 Inverter: The electricity generated by the solar panels is in direct current (DC)
form, but most electrical grids and appliances use alternating current (AC).
Hence, an inverter is used to convert the DC electricity from the solar panels
into AC electricity, which can be used by homes, businesses, and the grid.
 Mounting Structure: Solar panels are typically mounted on a support
structure that positions them to capture maximum sunlight throughout the day.
This structure can be fixed or track the movement of the sun (tracking systems)
for optimal efficiency.
 Electrical Components: Besides the inverter, the solar power plant includes
other electrical components such as wiring, switches, and transformers to
manage the flow of electricity and connect the system to the grid or to l ocal
loads.
 Grid Connection: In grid-connected solar power plants, the generated
electricity is fed into the utility grid. This can be done through a process called
net metering, where the excess electricity generated during sunny periods is
exported to the grid, and during times of low generation (e.g., at night),
electricity is drawn from the grid.
 Monitoring and Control Systems: Solar power plants often incorporate
monitoring and control systems to track the performance of individual panels,
optimize energy production, and ensure safety and reliability.

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BESCK204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech. Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

 Energy Storage: Some solar power plants may include energy storage
systems such as batteries to store excess electricity generated during the day
for use during periods of low sunlight or high demand. This enhances the
reliability and stability of the power supply.

Overall, solar power plants utilize the photovoltaic effect to convert sunlight directly
into electricity, providing a clean and renewable energy source with minimal
environmental impact.

Working of a solar flat plate collector (OR) How Solar water heater Working

Components of solar flat plate collector:

 Absorber Plate: This is a flat, dark-colored surface that absorbs sunlight and
converts it into heat. It's usually made of a thermally conductive material such
as metal, and it's often coated with a selective surface to enhance absorption
and minimize heat loss.

 Transparent Cover: A transparent cover, usually made of glass or plastic,

covers the absorber plate to minimize heat loss through convection and
radiation. It also allows sunlight to pass through while trapping the heat inside
the collector.

 Insulation: Insulation is placed on the sides and back of the collector to

reduce heat loss and improve the overall efficiency of the collector by
maintaining a temperature gradient between the absorber plate and the
surroundings.

 Frame: The frame provides structural support to the collector and holds the
absorber plate and transparent cover in place. It's typically made of materials
such as aluminum or steel.

 Tubes or Pipes: These are used to circulate a heat transfer fluid (such as
water or a mixture of water and antifreeze) through the collector. The fluid
absorbs heat from the absorber plate and carries it to a storage tank or heat
exchanger where it can be used for heating water or air.

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Working of solar flat plate collector

 Water from overhead tank is made to flow through the water tubes which are
attached at the back side of the absorber plate.
 Sun’s rays falling on the transparent covers are transmitted to the absorbing
plate.
 The absorbing plate usually of Cu, Al or galvanized iron is painted black for
maximum absorption.
 The collector (plate) will absorb the sun energy and transfer it to the fluid in
the pipe beneath the collector plate. Use of flat mirrors on the sides improves
the output.
 Water from the overhead tank is made to flow through the water tubes.
 Solar rays passes through the transparent cover and falls on the absorber plate.
 Heat energy from the absorber plate is transferred to the cold water flowing
through the tubes. Worm water rises above the cold water because of low
density and flows into the heater tank.

Working principle of solar pond in heating water using solar energy

 A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of solar
energy.
 By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective
of time and season.
 In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated
water, being lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere.
 The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature.
 The solar pond technology inhibits these phenomena by dissolving salt into
the bottom layer of this pond, making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even
when hot.
 The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a salinity gradient.
 The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there.
 The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of
hot brine.
 The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land ,a lot of
sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern. The
bottom layer is hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty.

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 Generally, there are three main layers. The top layer is cold and has relatively
little salt content Separating these two layers is the important gradient zone.

Working principle of solar photovoltaic cell PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:

Solar energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by means of

photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an
electromotive force (EMF) as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Devices
which convert sunlight to electricity are known as solar cells or photovoltaic cells.
Solar cells are semiconductors, commonly used are barrier type iron-selenium cells.
Iron-selenium cells consist of a metal electrode on which a layer of selenium
is deposited. On the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very
thin layer of gold. The layer of gold serves as a translucent electrode through which
light can impinge on the layer below.
Under the influence of sunlight, a negative charge will build up on the gold
electrode and a positive charge on the bottom electrode. This difference in charge
will produce voltage in proportion to the suns radiant energy incident on it.

Solar cells are made up of semiconductor material like silicon.

 The first layer has negative charged silicon (N-Type) .
 Second layer has positive charged silicon(p-Type)
 The intermediate is called P-N junction

When p-n junction is exposed to sunlight, it absorbs the solar photons and it
ejects the electrons. The ejected electrons will move towards the positive terminal.
This flow of electron constitutes the electric current. These solar photovoltaic cells
are used in Street lamps, traffic signal lights, solar water heaters, solar cookers,
solar calculators , watches

This system consists of the following:

1. Solar array (solar cells)

2. Blocking diode

3. Battery storage

4. Inverter

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5. Switches and load centre.

 In the solar cell array due to photovoltaic effect electrical power (D.C.) will be
produced in proportion to the suns radiant energy incident on it.
This generated power will be stored in the battery storage.
 A blocking diode ensures that the battery would not discharge power back to
solar array during the period when there is no sunlight.
 An inverter converter converts the D.C power to A.C. and sends it to the load
centre.

 From the load centre A.C. power is distributed accordingly with the help of
switches.

Wind Energy
WIND ENERGY: Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the winds
blowing across the earth surface. Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy
associated with the movement of large masses of air over the earth’s surface. The
circulation of the air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun. The air immediately above warm area expands and
becomes less dense. It is then forced upwards by a cool denser air which flows in
from the surrounding areas causing wind.

Power in the wind: Wind possesses kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. Any device
capable of slowing down the mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract
part of this energy and convert into useful work.

Here are some of the key applications of wind energy:

 Off-Grid Applications: In remote areas or locations where connecting to the
grid is not feasible, wind energy can be used to power off-grid systems. These

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applications can include powering remote communities, weather stations,

telecommunication towers, and water pumps for irrigation and water supply.
 Water Pumping: Wind energy has historically been used for water pumping in
rural areas where water is needed for agricultural irrigation or livestock. Wind-
powered water pumps can be a cost- effective and sustainable solution for
providing water in such regions.
 Coastal and Island Applications: Coastal regions and islands often have
access to consistent and strong winds. Wind energy can be harnessed in such
locations to meet a significant portion of their energy needs, reducing their
reliance on imported fossil fuels.
 Distributed Generation: On a smaller scale, individual homes, businesses,
and institutions can install small wind turbines for on-site power generation. This
distributed generation approach can reduce electricity bills and reliance on the
main power grid.
 Greenhouse Gas Reduction: Wind energy is a clean source of power,
producing no direct greenhouse gas emissions during electricity generation.
By replacing fossil fuel-based power generation, wind energy helps reduce
overall carbon emissions and combat climate change.
 Wind Turbines for Electricity Generation: Wind turbines are installed in
large wind farms or individually to capture the kinetic energy of the wind and
convert it into electrical energy. The rotating blades of the turbine drive a
generator, producing electricity that can be fed into the grid to supply power to
homes, businesses, and industries.

Explain the working principle of a wind turbine with neat sketch

A windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind energy into mechanical
energy used for grinding, milling and pumping applications. It consists of a rotor fitted
with large sized blades
It is worth noting that the deployment of wind energy requires careful
consideration of factors like wind availability, site selection, environmental impact
assessments, and local community engagement.
Additionally, advancements in energy storage technologies are crucial to
overcoming the intermittent nature of wind energy and ensuring a stable power
supply in all conditions.

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 Wind mill consists of vertical column, wind blades, shaft, gear box, Generator and
yaw mechanism
 Wind mill consists of specially designed blades which are connected to a shaft.
 The shaft in turn connected to connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Normally the wind blades will rotate in slower rpm. To increase the speed to the
shaft , the shaft is connected with a gear box through which the lesser rpm of
shaft can be multiplied and it rotates in a higher rpm.
 The shaft is connected to the generator at the end which in turn produce the
electricity.
 An yaw mechanism is used for the adjusting the nacelle according to the wind
direction since wind will not be always in same direction.
 The electrical power which is generated in generator will be transmitted to
electrical cable and step up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage
developed in the wind mill. Then the current is supplied to substations for the
distribution
Merits:
 The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
 Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause
greenhouse gases or other pollutants.
 Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind
turbines to produce their own supply.

De-merits:
 The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force.
 Only selected places it can be harnessed.

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Nuclear Power Plant:

Nuclear energy is a powerful and controversial energy source that is generated
through nuclear reactions.. Nuclear energy is a low-carbon alternative to fossil fuels,
and it has the potential to meet a significant portion of the world's electricity demand.
Nuclear energy is the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom. The energy released
during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity.
Nuclear Fission:
 Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into two nuclei with smaller
masses. Fission means “to divide”.
 A nuclear process in which a heavy nucleus when bombarded with neutrons
splits into two nuclei of equal mass with the release of enormous amount of
energy is called Nuclear fission
 “The most common nuclear fuels are 235U. Not all nuclear fuels are used in
fission chain reactions”

Nuclear Fusion:
 Nuclear fusion is the combining of two nuclei with low masses to form one
nucleus of larger mass. Nuclear fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear
reactions.
Here are some key applications of nuclear energy:
 Electricity Generation: Nuclear power plants are the most common
application of nuclear energy. They generate electricity by using nuclear fission
to produce heat, which then drives steam turbines connected to generators. The
electricity produced by nuclear power plants can provide a stable and
continuous source of energy to the grid, helping to meet the growing global
energy demand.
 Baseload Power: Nuclear power plants are considered "baseload" power
sources, meaning they can operate continuously at a high output level. Unlike
some renewable energy sources like solar and wind, nuclear power can provide
a consistent supply of electricity regardless of weather conditions.
 Decentralized Energy: Small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs) are being
developed to provide decentralized energy solutions. These compact reactors
can be deployed in remote areas or as part of micro grids, offering reliable
power in places with limited access to traditional energy sources.
 Desalination: Nuclear power plants can be integrated with desalination
facilities to produce fresh water from seawater through a process called nuclear
desalination. This can be particularly beneficial in regions facing water scarcity.
 Medical Applications: Nuclear energy has significant applications in medicine,
including diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Radioisotopes, produced in
nuclear reactors or accelerators, are used in imaging, cancer treatments, and
sterilization processes.
 Space Exploration: Nuclear energy is also being explored as a potential power
source for long-duration space missions. Nuclear-powered spacecraft could
provide ample energy for propulsion, life support, and scientific instruments.

Despite its advantages, nuclear energy also poses certain challenges and concerns:

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Safety: The potential for nuclear accidents and radiation exposure is a significant
concern associated with nuclear energy. Events like the Chernobyl and Fukushima
disasters have highlighted the importance of strict safety measures and robust
regulations in the nuclear industry.

Radioactive Waste: Nuclear power generates radioactive waste that requires careful
management and long-term storage to prevent environmental contamination. Finding
suitable disposal solutions for high-level nuclear waste remains a contentious issue.

Proliferation: The materials used in nuclear reactors can potentially be diverted for
the production of nuclear weapons. Therefore, strict safeguards and non-proliferation
measures are crucial to prevent the misuse of nuclear technology.

The debate surrounding nuclear energy revolves around weighing its benefits as a
low-carbon energy source against the safety, security, and waste management
challenges it presents. As technology and safety practices continue to evolve, nuclear
energy remains an important part of the global energy mix and will likely play a role
in the transition to a more sustainable energy future.

Explain the working principle of nuclear power plant with neat sketch

The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, control rods, steam
generators, steam turbine, coolant pump, feed pump, condenser, cooling tower.

NUCLEAR REACTOR:- A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions

are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear
bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled
causing an explosion.

CONTROL RODS:
Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into the
bundle using a mechanism that can rise or lower the control rods. The control rods
essentially contain neutron absorbers like, boron, cadmium or indium.

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STEAM GENERATORS:
Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert water into steam from
heat produced in a nuclear reactor core. Either ordinary water or heavy water is used
as the coolant.

STEAM TURBINE:
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical. Various high- performance
alloys and super alloys have been used for steam generator tubing.

FEED PUMP:
Steam coming out of the turbine, flows through the condenser for condensation
and recirculated for the next cycle of operation. The feed pump circulates the
condensed water in the working fluid loop.

CONDENSER:
Condenser is a device or unit which is used to condense vapor into liquid. The
objective of the condenser are to reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to increase the
efficiency and to recover high quality feed water in the form of condensate &
feedback it to the steam generator without any further treatment.

COOLING TOWER:
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to
the atmosphere. Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower
for cooling and reuse The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in
a steam power plant. The heat liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of
the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating in the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the
reactor at top and then flows through the tubes of heat exchanger and transfers its
heat to the feed water on its way. The steam produced in the heat exchanger is
passed through the turbine and after the work has done by the expansion of steam in
the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the condenser. The mechanical or
rotating energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the generator which in turn
generates the electrical energy and supplies to the bus through a step-up
transformer, a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the
flow of coolant, condensate, and feed water.

ADVANTAGES:-
 Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide
(CO2).
 The emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear
power plants to global warming is therefore relatively little. This technology is
readily available, it does not have to be developed first.
 It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.

DISADVANTAGES:-
 The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.
 High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.
 The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource;

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its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the
actual demand.

Introduction to Application of Energy Sources – bio fuel

Biofuels are a type of renewable energy derived from organic materials such as
plant matter, animal waste, and algae. They offer a promising alternative to fossil
fuels because they are considered carbon- neutral, meaning the carbon dioxide
released during their combustion is roughly equal to the amount absorbed by the
source plants during their growth. As a result, biofuels have the potential to
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.

The two primary types of biofuels are bioethanol and biodiesel. Bioethanol is an
alcohol-based fuel made by fermenting sugars and starches found in crops such as
corn, sugarcane, and wheat. Biodiesel, on the other hand, is produced from vegetable
oils or animal fats through a process called trans esterification.
Here are some key applications of biofuels as an energy source:

 Transportation: One of the main uses of biofuels is in the transportation

sector. Bioethanol and biodiesel can be blended with conventional gasoline and
diesel, respectively, or used as standalone fuels in specially designed engines.
Flex-fuel vehicles can run on a mix of gasoline and ethanol, offering consumers
a more environmentally friendly option.
 Aviation: Biofuels are being tested and implemented in the aviation industry as
an alternative to traditional jet fuels. Airlines and aircraft manufacturers are
exploring ways to incorporate biojet fuels made from sustainable sources to
reduce the carbon footprint of air travel.
 Electricity Generation: Biomass can be used to produce bioenergy, which can
be converted into electricity through various methods like combustion,
gasification, or anaerobic digestion. Biomass power plants can provide a stable
and renewable source of electricity to communities.
 Heating and Cooling: In some regions, biofuels are used for residential
heating and cooling systems. Biomass-based fuels can be burned in stoves,
furnaces, and boilers to produce heat and hot water for homes and businesses.
 Industrial Processes: Certain industries utilize biofuels in their manufacturing
processes, reducing their reliance on fossil fuels and decreasing their
environmental impact.
 Agriculture: Biofuels can create a potential market for farmers as they can
grow crops specifically for fuel production. This can diversify income sources
and contribute to sustainable agricultural practices.

While biofuels offer many benefits, there are also some challenges associated
with their widespread adoption. Concerns include competition with food production for
land and resources, potential deforestation for biomass cultivation, and the overall
environmental impact of large-scale biofuel production.

To strike a balance between meeting energy needs and maintaining ecological

sustainability, ongoing research and development in the field of biofuels are
important.

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Environmental issues – ozone depletion

Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer in the stratosphere,
which is caused by the release of certain human-made chemicals known as ozone-
depleting substances (ODS). The ozone layer plays a critical role in protecting life on
Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Understanding the causes,
effects, and remedies of ozone depletion is essential for preserving this protective
layer.

Causes of Ozone Depletion:

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs are synthetic compounds used in

refrigeration, air conditioning, aerosols, and foam manufacturing. When
released into the atmosphere, they can reach the stratosphere and release
chlorine atoms that break down ozone molecules.
 Halons: Halons are used in fire extinguishers and can also release bromine and
chlorine atoms that contribute to ozone destruction.
 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): HCFCs are used as transitional
substitutes for CFCs but have a lower ozone-depleting potential. However, they
still contribute to ozone depletion.
 Methyl Chloroform and Carbon Tetrachloride: These industrial solvents
release chlorine into the atmosphere and contribute to ozone depletion.

Effect of Ozone Depletion:

 Increased UV Radiation: Depletion of the ozone layer allows more UV radiation
to reach the Earth's surface, posing significant health risks to humans, such as
skin cancer, cataracts, and immune system suppression.
 Harm to Marine Life: UV radiation can harm marine organisms, including
phytoplankton, which form the base of the marine food chain.
 Damage to Terrestrial Ecosystems: Increased UV radiation can harm plants,
animals, and ecosystems on land, leading to reduced crop yields, fores t decline,
and disruptions in natural ecosystems.
 Impact on Climate: Ozone-depleting substances are also potent greenhouse
gases, contributing to climate change.

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Remedies for Ozone Depletion:

 Phaseout of ODS: Countries have taken steps to phase out the production and
use of major ODS(ozone depleting substances), such as CFCs and halons. As a
result, the ozone layer has started to show signs of recovery.
 Replacement with Safer Alternatives: Industries have transitioned to using
ozone-friendly alternatives like hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which have a much
lower ozone-depleting potential.
 Public Awareness and Education: Raising public awareness about the
importance of ozone protection and the use of ozone-safe products can help
promote responsible consumption and reduce emissions.
 Technological Advancements: Continued research and development of new
technologies and alternatives that are ozone-friendly and energy-efficient can
further accelerate the transition away from ozone-depleting substances.

While significant progress has been made in addressing ozone depletion,

continued vigilance and global cooperation are essential to fully restore and protect
the ozone layer.

Environmental issues - Global warming

Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface
temperature due to the enhanced greenhouse effect, primarily caused by human
activities. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps the Earth's surface
warmer than it would be without an atmosphere.
However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial processes, have led to an excess of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere, trapping more heat and causing the planet to warm at an accelerated
rate .

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Causes of Global Warming:

 Fossil Fuels: Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy production and
transportation releases carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant greenhouse
gas, into the atmosphere.
 Deforestation: The clearing of forests reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb
CO2, leading to higher levels of the gas in the atmosphere.
 Industrial Processes: Certain industrial activities release potent greenhouse
gases like methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere.
 Agriculture: Agricultural practices, including livestock farming and rice
cultivation, produce methane emissions.

Effects of Global Warming:

 Rising Temperatures: Global warming leads to a rise in average

temperatures, impacting ecosystems, weather patterns, and water resources.
 Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels: Higher temperatures cause polar ice caps
and glaciers to melt, contributing to sea-level rise, which threatens coastal
communities and low-lying areas.
 Extreme Weather Events: Global warming is linked to an increase in extreme
weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, heat waves, and heavy rainfall.

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 Ocean Acidification: The absorption of excess CO2 by the oceans leads to

ocean acidification, harming marine life and ecosystems.
 Species Extinction: Climate change disrupts ecosystems, affecting species'
habitats, food sources, and migration patterns, leading to a loss of biodiversity.
 Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation
contribute to water scarcity in some regions.

Remedies for Global Warming:

 Transition to Renewable Energy: Rapidly shift from fossil fuels to renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power.
 Energy Efficiency: Implement energy-efficient technologies and practices in
industries, buildings, and transportation to reduce energy consumption and
emissions.
 Afforestation and Reforestation: Planting more trees and preserving existing
forests to increase carbon sequestration and reduce atmospheric CO2 levels.
 Sustainable Agricultural practices : Adopting sustainable agricultural
practices, reducing methane emissions from livestock, and promoting soil
carbon isolation
 International Agreements for emission reduction: Participate in global
agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, to set emission reduction targets and
coordinate international efforts to combat climate change.
 Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about climate change and
encouraging individuals to adopt eco-friendly behaviors and support sustainable
practices.

Addressing global warming requires collaborative efforts from governments,

industries, communities, and individuals worldwide. By taking comprehensive action
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change, we
can work towards a more sustainable and climate-resilient future.

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