SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT
statements.

Types of Set Operation

1. Union
2. UnionAll
3. Intersect
4. Minus

1. Union
o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL
SELECT queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be
same in both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

The First table

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION
3. SELECT * FROM Second;
Note: The asterisk (*) is a wildcard character that means "all columns."
“USING UNION DUPLICATES ARE REMOVED”

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME
 1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set
without removing duplication and sorting the data.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example: Using the above First and Second table.

Union All query will be like:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. UNION ALL
3. SELECT * FROM Second;
NOTE : “USING UNION ALL DUPIULICATE ARE NOT REMOVED”

The resultset table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack
 2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

3. Intersect
o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation
returns the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be
the same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example:

Using the above First and Second table.

Intersect query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. INTERSECT
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like:

ID NAME

3 Jackson
 4. Minus
o It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used
to display the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the
second query.
o It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax:

1. SELECT column_name FROM table1

2. MINUS
3. SELECT column_name FROM table2;

Example

Using the above First and Second table.

Minus query will be:

1. SELECT * FROM First

2. MINUS
3. SELECT * FROM Second;

The result set table will look like:

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

5.Except:

Unique rows from the first table that are not found in the second table are selected.
Syntax :

Select *FROM first table

Except

Select *from second table

Result :

ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

Aggregate Functions in SQL:

Aggregate functions are used to perform calculations on a set of values and return a single value.

1. COUNT():
Syntax;
COUNT(column_name);
2. SUM():
Syntax:
SUM(column_name);
3. AVG():
AVG(column_name);

id product region amount

1 Apple East 100

2 Banana West 150

3 Apple East 200

4 Apple West 250

5 Banana East 300

Example:

SELECT product, SUM(amount) AS total_sales

FROM sales

GROUP BY product;

Output:

product total_sales

Apple 550

Banana 450

Nested Subqueries in SQL

A nested subquery (or subquery within a subquery) is a query inside another query. It is used to
perform operations that require a second query to filter or manipulate the data of the main query.

There are two main types of subqueries:

1. Single-row subquery: Returns a single value.

2. Multiple-row subquery: Returns multiple rows

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name

WHERE column1 = (SELECT column_name FROM another_table WHERE condition);

Join Expression in SQL

A join in SQL is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column between
them. The join expression specifies the condition for combining the rows, typically involving
matching columns from the tables.
Types of Joins:

1. Inner Join

2. Outer Join (Left, Right, Full)

3. Cross Join

4. Self Join

1. Inner Join

The INNER JOIN returns only the rows where there is a match in both tables based on the join
condition.

SELECT columns

FROM table1

INNER JOIN table2

ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:

Combine employee data with their department information.

Tables:

 employees:

emp_id emp_name dept_id

1 Alice 101
2 Bob 102
3 Charlie 103

 departments:

dept_id dept_name
101 HR
102 IT

Query:

SELECT emp_name, dept_name

FROM employees

INNER JOIN departments

ON employees.dept_id = departments.dept_id;

Output:

emp_name dept_name
Alice HR
Bob IT

 Only rows with matching dept_id in both tables are returned.

2. Left Outer Join (Left Join)

The LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, and matching rows from the right table. If no
match is found, NULL is returned for columns from the right table.

For detail : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-join-set-1-inner-left-right-and-full-joins/

3. Right Outer Join (Right Join)

The RIGHT JOIN is similar to the left join, but it returns all rows from the right table and matching
rows from the left table.

4. Full Outer Join

The FULL OUTER JOIN returns all rows from both tables. If there’s no match, NULL is returned for
missing values.

5. Cross Join

The CROSS JOIN produces a Cartesian product, meaning every row in the first table is combined with
every row in the second table.

6. Self Join

A SELF JOIN is a join of a table with itself. It is useful for comparing rows within the same table.

Transactions in SQL

A transaction in SQL is a sequence of one or more SQL statements that are executed as a single
unit of work.

Transactions are used to ensure data integrity and consistency in a database, especially in
environments with multiple concurrent users or operations.

Key Properties of Transactions (ACID):

 1. Atomicity:

o Ensures that a transaction is all-or-nothing.

o If one part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction is rolled back.

2. Consistency:

o Ensures that the database transitions from one valid state to another valid state.

o The database's rules and constraints are preserved.

3. Isolation:

o Ensures that transactions are executed independently.

o Changes made by one transaction are not visible to other transactions until
committed.

4. Durability:

o Ensures that once a transaction is committed, its changes are permanent, even in
the event of a system failure.

Integrity Constraints in SQL

Integrity constraints are rules applied to database tables to ensure the accuracy, consistency,
and reliability of the data stored in them. These constraints enforce business rules on data,
ensuring that the database remains valid and meaningful.

Types of Integrity Constraints:

Primary Key Constraint:

 Ensures that each row in a table has a unique identifier.

 A column or combination of columns marked as a primary key must contain unique and
non-null values.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE employees (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

emp_name VARCHAR(50)

);

Foreign Key Constraint:

  Establishes a relationship between two tables.

 Ensures that a value in one table corresponds to a value in another table (referential
integrity).

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE orders (

order_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

customer_id INT,

FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customers(customer_id)

);

Note here the customer _id is common in both tables (orders and customers).

Not Null Constraint:

 Ensures that a column cannot have NULL values.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE departments (

dept_id INT NOT NULL,

dept_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL

);

Authorization in SQL

Authorization in SQL refers to the process of granting or restricting access to database resources
based on user roles and privileges. It ensures that only authorized users can perform specific
operations, such as reading, modifying, or deleting data, maintaining data security and integrity.

Syntax:

GRANT privilege_name ON object_name TO user_name;

Example :

GRANT select ON student TO user_1;

Note:Grant the permission to user_1 to view the student table

Now, user1 can run the following query:

SELECT * FROM employees;