Transaction:

o The transaction is a set of logically related operation. It contains a group of tasks.

o A transaction is an action or series of actions. It is performed by a single user to perform operations
for accessing the contents of the database.

Example: Suppose an employee of bank transfers Rs 800 from X's account to Y's account. This small
transaction contains several low-level tasks:

X's Account
1. Open_Account(X)
2. Old_Balance = X.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance - 800
4. X.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(X)

Y's Account
1. Open_Account(Y)
2. Old_Balance = Y.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance + 800
4. Y.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(Y)

Operations of Transaction:
Following are the main operations of transaction:
Read(X): is used to read the value of X from the database and stores it in a buffer in main memory.
Write(X): is used to write the value back to the database from the buffer.
Commit(): is used to commit the transaction.
Abort(): is used to abort the transaction.

Let's take an example to debit transaction from an account which consists of following operations:
1. R(X);
2. X = X - 500;
3. W(X);

Let's assume the value of X before starting of the transaction is 4000.

o The first operation reads X's value from database and stores it in a buffer.
o The second operation will decrease the value of X by 500. So buffer will contain 3500.
o The third operation will write the buffer's value to the database. So X's final value will be 3500.

But it may be possible that because of the failure of hardware, software or power, etc. that transaction
may fail before finished all the operations in the set.

For example: If in the above transaction, the debit transaction fails after executing operation 2 then X's
value will remain 4000 in the database which is not acceptable by the bank.

To solve this problem, we have two important operations:

Commit: It is used to save the work done permanently.
Rollback: It is used to undo the work done.
Transaction Property:
The transaction has the four properties. These are used to maintain consistency in a database, before and
after the transaction.
1. Atomicity
2. Consistency
3. Isolation
4. Durability

1. Atomicity:
o It states that all operations of the transaction take place at once if not, the transaction is aborted.
o There is no midway, i.e., the transaction cannot occur partially. Each transaction is treated as one
unit and either run to completion or is not executed at all.

Atomicity involves the following two operations:

Abort: If a transaction aborts then all the changes made are not visible.
Commit: If a transaction commits then all the changes made are visible.

Example: Let's assume that following transaction T consisting of T1 and T2. A consists of Rs 600 and
B consists of Rs 300. Transfer Rs 100 from account A to account B.

T1 T2

Read(A) Read(B)
A:= A-100 Y:= Y+100
Write(A) Write(B)

After completion of the transaction, A consists of Rs 500 and B consists of Rs 400.

If the transaction T fails after the completion of transaction T1 but before completion of transaction T2,
then the amount will be deducted from A but not added to B. This shows the inconsistent database state.
In order to ensure correctness of database state, the transaction must be executed in entirety.

2. Consistency:
o The integrity constraints are maintained so that the database is consistent before and after the
transaction.
o The execution of a transaction will leave a database in either its prior stable state or a new stable
state.
o The consistent property of database states that every transaction sees a consistent database instance.
o The transaction is used to transform the database from one consistent state to another consistent state.

For example: The total amount must be maintained before or after the transaction.
1. Total before T occurs = 600+300=900
2. Total after T occurs= 500+400=900

Therefore, the database is consistent. In the case when T1 is completed but T2 fails, then inconsistency
will occur.

3. Isolation:
o It shows that the data which is used at the time of execution of a transaction cannot be used by the
second transaction until the first one is completed.
o In isolation, if the transaction T1 is being executed and using the data item X, then that data item
can't be accessed by any other transaction T2 until the transaction T1 ends.
o The concurrency control subsystem of the DBMS enforced the isolation property.

4. Durability:
o The durability property is used to indicate the performance of the database's consistent state. It
states that the transaction made the permanent changes.
o They cannot be lost by the erroneous operation of a faulty transaction or by the system failure.
When a transaction is completed, then the database reaches a state known as the consistent state.
That consistent state cannot be lost, even in the event of a system's failure.
o The recovery subsystem of the DBMS has the responsibility of Durability property.

States of Transaction:
In a database, the transaction can be in one of the following states -
1. Active State:
o The active state is the first state of every transaction. In this state, the transaction is being executed.
o For example: Insertion or deletion or updating a record is done here. But all the records are still not saved to
the database.

2. Partially Committed:
o In the partially committed state, a transaction executes its final operation, but the data is still not saved to the
database.
o In the total mark calculation example, a final display of the total marks step is executed in this state.

3. Committed:
o A transaction is said to be in a committed state if it executes all its operations successfully. In this state, all the
effects are now permanently saved on the database system.

4. Failed State:
o If any of the checks made by the database recovery system fails, then the transaction is said to be in the failed
state.
o In the example of total mark calculation, if the database is not able to fire a query to fetch the marks, then the
transaction will fail to execute.

5. Aborted:
o If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state then the database recovery system
will make sure that the database is in its previous consistent state. If not then it will abort or roll back the
transaction to bring the database into a consistent state.
o If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before executing the transaction, all the
executed transactions are rolled back to its consistent state.
o After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module will select one of the two operations:
i. Re-start the transaction
ii. Kill the transaction

Schedule:
A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is known as schedule. It is used to
preserve the order of the operation in each of the individual transaction.
1. Serial Schedule:
The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed completely before starting
another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the first transaction completes its cycle, then the next
transaction is executed.
For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some operations. If it has no
interleaving of operations, then there are the following two possible outcomes:
1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of T2.
2. Execute all the operations of T2 which was followed by all the operations of T1.

o In the given (a) figure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1 followed by T2.
o In the given (b) figure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2 followed by T1.

2. Non-Serial Schedule:
o If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial schedule.
o It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the individual operations of the
transactions.
o In the given figure (c) and (d), Schedule (c) and Schedule (d) are the non-serial schedules. It has
interleaving of operations.

3. Serializable Schedule:
o The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that allow the transaction to
execute concurrently without interfering with one another.
o It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction have interleaving of their
operations.
o A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of its transactions executed
serially.
Testing of Serializability:
Serialization Graph is used to test the Serializability of a schedule.
Assume a schedule S. For S, we construct a graph known as precedence graph. This graph has a pair G
= (V, E), where V consists a set of vertices, and E consists a set of edges. The set of vertices is used to
contain all the transactions participating in the schedule. The set of edges is used to contain all edges Ti
->Tj for which one of the three conditions holds:

1. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes read (Q).

2. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes read (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).
3. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

o If a precedence graph contains a single edge Ti → Tj, then all the instructions of Ti are executed before the
first instruction of Tj is executed.
o If a precedence graph for schedule S contains a cycle, then S is non-serializable. If the precedence graph has
no cycle, then S is known as serializable.

For example:

Explanation:
Read(A): In T1, no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges
Read(B): In T2, no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Read(C): In T3, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(B): B is subsequently read by T3, so add edge T2 → T3
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T1, so add edge T3 → T1
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T2, so add edge T1 → T2
Write(A): In T2, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(C): In T1, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(B): In T3, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

Precedence graph for schedule S1:

The precedence graph for schedule S1 contains a cycle that's why Schedule S1 is non-serializable.

Explanation:
Read(A): In T4,no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges
Read(C): In T4, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T5, so add edge T4 → T5
Read(B): In T5,no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T4 → T6
Write(B): A is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T5 → T6
Write(C): In T6, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(A): In T5, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(B): In T6, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges
Precedence graph for schedule S2:

The precedence graph for schedule S2 contains no cycle that's why Schedule S2 is serializable.

Types of Serializable Schedule:

1. Conflict Serializable Schedule:

o A schedule is called conflict serializability if after swapping of non-conflicting operations, it can transform
into a serial schedule.
o The schedule will be a conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.

Conflicting Operations:
The two operations become conflicting if all conditions satisfy:
o Both belong to separate transactions.
o They have the same data item.
o They contain at least one write operation (like R->W, W->W, or W->R).

Example:
Swapping is possible only if S1 and S2 are logically equal.

Here, S1 = S2. That means it is non-conflict.

Here, S1 ≠ S2. That means it is conflict.

Conflict Equivalent:
In the conflict equivalent, one can be transformed to another by swapping non-conflicting operations. In
the given example, S2 is conflict equivalent to S1 (S1 can be converted to S2 by swapping non-
conflicting operations).
Two schedules are said to be conflict equivalent if and only if:
o They contain the same set of the transaction.
o If each pair of conflict operations are ordered in the same way.
Example:

Schedule S2 is a serial schedule because, in this, all operations of T1 are performed before starting any operation
of T2. Schedule S1 can be transformed into a serial schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations of S1.

After swapping of non-conflict operations, the schedule S1 becomes:

T1 T2

Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)

Since, S1 is conflict serializable.

2. View Serializability:
o A schedule will view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.
o If a schedule is conflict serializable, then it will be view serializable.
o The view serializable which does not conflict serializable contains blind writes.

View Equivalent:
Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the following conditions:

a. Initial Read:
An initial read of both schedules must be the same. Suppose there are two schedule S1 and S2. In
schedule S1, if a transaction T1 is reading the data item A, then in S2, transaction T1 should also read
A.

Above two schedules are view equivalent because Initial read operation in S1 is done by T1 and in S2 it is also
done by T1.

b. Updated Read:
In schedule S1, if Ti is reading A which is updated by Tj then in S2 also, Ti should read A which is
updated by Tj.

Above two schedules are not view equal because, in S1, T3 is reading A updated by T2 and in S2, T3 is reading A
updated by T1.

c. Final Write:
A final write must be the same between both the schedules. In schedule S1, if a transaction T1 updates
A at last then in S2, final writes operations should also be done by T1.

Above two schedules is view equal because Final write operation in S1 is done by T3 and in S2, the final write
operation is also done by T3.
Example:

Schedule S with 3 transactions, the total number of possible schedule are = 3! = 6.

S1 = <T1 T2 T3>, S2 = <T1 T3 T2>, S3 = <T2 T3 T1>,
S4 = <T2 T1 T3>, S5 = <T3 T1 T2>, S6 = <T3 T2 T1>

Taking first schedule S1:

Schedule S1
Step 1: final updation on data items
In both schedules S and S1, there is no read except the initial read that's why we don't need to check that
condition.
Step 2: Initial Read
The initial read operation in S is done by T1 and in S1, it is also done by T1.
Step 3: Final Write
The final write operation in S is done by T3 and in S1, it is also done by T3. So, S and S1 are view
Equivalent.
The first schedule S1 satisfies all three conditions, so we don't need to check another schedule.
Hence, view equivalent serial schedule is: T1 → T2 → T3.

Note: If a schedule is non-conflict serializable and having at least one blind write, then this schedule
may or may not be a view serializable schedule. But if a schedule is non-conflict serializable and do not
have any blind write, then this schedule should not be a view serializable schedule.

Conflict Serializable Schedlue

View Serializable Schedlue

Consistent Schedule

In-consistent Schedule

All Schedule
Concurrent Execution in DBMS:
o In a multi-user system, multiple users can access and use the same database at one time, which is known as the
concurrent execution of the database. It means that the same database is executed simultaneously on a multi-
user system by different users.
o While working on the database transactions, there occurs the requirement of using the database by multiple
users for performing different operations, and in that case, concurrent execution of the database is performed.
o The thing is that the simultaneous execution that is performed should be done in an interleaved manner, and no
operation should affect the other executing operations, thus maintaining the consistency of the database. Thus,
on making the concurrent execution of the transaction operations, there occur several challenging problems
that need to be solved.

Problems with Concurrent Execution:

In a database transaction, the two main operations are READ and WRITE operations. So, there is a
need to manage these two operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions as if these
operations are not performed in an interleaved manner, and the data may become inconsistent. So, the
following problems occur with the Concurrent Execution of the operations:

Problem 1: Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict):

The problem occurs when two different database transactions perform the read/write operations on the
same database items in an interleaved manner (i.e., concurrent execution) that makes the values of the
items incorrect hence making the database inconsistent.

For example:
Consider the below diagram where two transactions TX and TY, are performed on the same
account A where the balance of account A is $300.

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300 (only read).
o At time t2, transaction TX deducts $50 from account A that becomes $250 (only deducted and not
updated/write).
o Alternately, at time t3, transaction T Y reads the value of account A that will be $300 only because T X didn't
update the value yet.
o At time t4, transaction TY adds $100 to account A that becomes $400 (only added but not updated/write).
o At time t6, transaction TX writes the value of account A that will be updated as $250 only, as T Y didn't update
the value yet.
o Similarly, at time t7, transaction TY writes the values of account A, so it will write as done at time t4 that will
be $400. It means the value written by TX is lost, i.e., $250 is lost.
Hence data becomes incorrect, and database sets to inconsistent.
Problem 2: Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict):
The dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item of the database, and somehow the
transaction fails, and before the data gets rollback, the updated database item is accessed by another
transaction. There comes the Read-Write Conflict between both transactions.

For example:
Consider two transactions TX and TY in the below diagram performing read/write operations on
account A where the available balance in account A is $300:

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t2, transaction TX adds $50 to account A that becomes $350.
o At time t3, transaction TX writes the updated value in account A, i.e., $350.
o Then at time t4, transaction TY reads account A that will be read as $350.
o Then at time t5, transaction TX rollbacks due to server problem, and the value changes back to $300 (as
initially).
o But the value for account A remains $350 for transaction T Y as committed, which is the dirty read and
therefore known as the Dirty Read Problem.

Problem 3: Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict):

Also known as Inconsistent Retrievals Problem that occurs when in a transaction, two different values
are read for the same database item.

For example:
Consider two transactions, TX and TY, performing the read/write operations on account A, having
an available balance = $300. The diagram is shown below:
o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.
o At time t2, transaction TY reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.
o At time t3, transaction TY updates the value of account A by adding $100 to the available balance, and then it
becomes $400.
o At time t4, transaction TY writes the updated value, i.e., $400.
o After that, at time t5, transaction TX reads the available value of account A, and that will be read as $400.
o It means that within the same transaction T X, it reads two different values of account A, i.e., $ 300 initially,
and after updation made by transaction TY, it reads $400. It is an unrepeatable read and is therefore known as
the Unrepeatable read problem.

Thus, in order to maintain consistency in the database and avoid such problems that take place in
concurrent execution, management is needed, and that is where the concept of Concurrency Control
comes into role.

Concurrency Control Protocols:

The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency, isolation,
durability and serializability of the concurrent execution of the database transactions. Therefore, these
protocols are categorized as:
o Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol
o Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol
We will understand and discuss each protocol one by one in our next sections.

1. Lock-Based Protocol:
In this type of protocol, any transaction cannot read or write data until it acquires an appropriate lock on
it. There are two types of lock:
a. Shared lock:
o It is also known as a Read-only lock. In a shared lock, the data item can only read by the transaction.
o It can be shared between the transactions because when the transaction holds a lock, then it can't update the
data on the data item.
b. Exclusive lock:
o In the exclusive lock, the data item can be both reads as well as written by the transaction.
o This lock is exclusive, and in this lock, multiple transactions do not modify the same data simultaneously.
Lock Compatibility Table:
Lock Shared Exclusive
Shared Y N
Exclusive N N

Lock based protocol may have following problems:

o May not sufficient to produce serializable schedule.
o May not free from irrecoverability.
o May not free from deadlock.
o May not free from starvation.

Two-Phase Locking Protocol (2PL):

o The two-phase locking protocol divides the execution phase of the transaction into three parts.
o In the first part, when the execution of the transaction starts, it seeks permission for the lock it requires.
o In the second part, the transaction acquires all the locks. The third phase is started as soon as the transaction
releases its first lock.
o In the third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. It only releases the acquired locks.
There are two phases of 2PL:
Growing phase: In the growing phase, a new lock on the data item may be acquired by the transaction,
but none can be released.
Shrinking phase: In the shrinking phase, existing lock held by the transaction may be released, but no
new locks can be acquired.

In the below example, if lock conversion is allowed then the following phase can happen:
o Upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X (a)) is allowed in growing phase.
o Downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in shrinking phase.

Example:

The following way shows how unlocking and locking work with 2-PL.
Transaction T1:
o Growing phase: from step 1-3
o Shrinking phase: from step 5-7
o Lock point: at 3
Transaction T2:
o Growing phase: from step 2-6
o Shrinking phase: from step 8-9
o Lock point: at 6
2. Timestamp Ordering Protocol:
o The Timestamp Ordering Protocol is used to order the transactions based on their Timestamps. The
order of transaction is nothing but the ascending order of the transaction creation.
o The priority of the older transaction is higher that's why it executes first. To determine the timestamp
of the transaction, this protocol uses system time or logical counter.
o The lock-based protocol is used to manage the order between conflicting pairs among transactions at
the execution time. But Timestamp based protocols start working as soon as a transaction is created.
o Let's assume there are two transactions T1 and T2. Suppose the transaction T1 has entered the system
at 007 times and transaction T2 has entered the system at 009 times. T1 has the higher priority, so it
executes first as it is entered the system first.
o The timestamp ordering protocol also maintains the timestamp of last 'read' and 'write' operation on a
data.

Basic Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:

1. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read (X) operation:
o If W_TS(X) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected.
o If W_TS(X) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed.
o Timestamps of all the data items are updated.
2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Write(X) operation:
o If TS(Ti) < R_TS(X) then the operation is rejected.
o If TS(Ti) < W_TS(X) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled back otherwise the operation
is executed.
Where,
TS(TI) denotes the timestamp of the transaction Ti.
R_TS(X) denotes the Read time-stamp of data-item X.
W_TS(X) denotes the Write time-stamp of data-item X.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TO protocol:

o TO protocol ensures serializability since the precedence graph is as follows:

o TS protocol ensures freedom from deadlock that means no transaction ever waits.
o But the schedule may not be recoverable and may not even be cascade- free.

Recovery with Concurrent Transaction:

o Whenever more than one transaction is being executed, then the interleaved of logs occur. During
recovery, it would become difficult for the recovery system to backtrack all logs and then start
recovering.
o To ease this situation, 'checkpoint' concept is used by most DBMS.
Failure Classification:
To find that where the problem has occurred, we generalize a failure into the following categories:
1. Transaction failure
2. System crash
3. Disk failure

1. Transaction failure:
o The transaction failure occurs when it fails to execute or when it reaches a point from where it can't go any
further. If a few transaction or process is hurt, then this is called as transaction failure.
o Reasons for a transaction failure could be -
a. Logical errors: If a transaction cannot complete due to some code error or an internal error condition, then the
logical error occurs.
b. Syntax error: It occurs where the DBMS itself terminates an active transaction because the database system is
not able to execute it. For example, The system aborts an active transaction, in case of deadlock or resource
unavailability.

2. System Crash:
o System failure can occur due to power failure or other hardware or software failure. Example: Operating
system error.
o Fail-stop assumption: In the system crash, non-volatile storage is assumed not to be corrupted.

3. Disk Failure:
o It occurs where hard-disk drives or storage drives used to fail frequently. It was a common problem in the
early days of technology evolution.
o Disk failure occurs due to the formation of bad sectors, disk head crash, and unreachability to the disk or any
other failure, which destroy all or part of disk storage.

Recoverability of Schedule:
Sometimes a transaction may not execute completely due to a software issue, system crash or hardware
failure. In that case, the failed transaction has to be rollback. But some other transaction may also have
used value produced by the failed transaction. So we also have to rollback those transactions.

The above table 1 shows a schedule which has two transactions. T1 reads and writes the value of A and
that value is read and written by T2. T2 commits but later on, T1 fails. Due to the failure, we have to
rollback T1. T2 should also be rollback because it reads the value written by T1, but T2 can't be rollback
because it already committed. So this type of schedule is known as irrecoverable schedule.

Recoverable Schedule: A schedule is recoverable if it allows for the recovery of the database to a
consistent state after a transaction failure. In a recoverable schedule, a transaction that has updated the
database must commit before any other transaction reads or writes the same data. If a transaction fails
before committing, its updates must be rolled back, and any transactions that have read its uncommitted
data must also be rolled back.

Irrecoverable schedule: The schedule will be irrecoverable if Tj reads the updated value of Ti and Tj
committed before Ti commit.

The above table 2 shows a schedule with two transactions. Transaction T1 reads and writes A, and that value is
read and written by transaction T2. But later on, T1 fails. Due to this, we have to rollback T1. T2 should be
rollback because T2 has read the value written by T1. As it has not committed before T1 commits so we can
rollback transaction T2 as well. So it is recoverable with cascade rollback.

Log-Based Recovery:
o The log is a sequence of records. Log of each transaction is maintained in some stable storage so that if any
failure occurs, then it can be recovered from there.
o If any operation is performed on the database, then it will be recorded in the log.
o But the process of storing the logs should be done before the actual transaction is applied in the database.

Let's assume there is a transaction to modify the City of a student. The following logs are written for this
transaction.
o When the transaction is initiated, then it writes 'start' log: <Tn, Start>
o When the transaction modifies the City from 'Noida' to 'Bangalore', then another log is written to the file:
<Tn, City, 'Noida', 'Bangalore' >
o When the transaction is finished, then it writes another log to indicate the end of the transaction:
<Tn, Commit>
o When the transaction is abort, then it writes another log to indicate the abort of the transaction:
<Tn, Abort>

Recovery using Log records:

When the system is crashed, then the system consults the log to find which transactions need to be
undone and which need to be redone.
o If the log contains the record {<Ti, Start> with <Ti, Commit> or <Ti, Abort>} or <Ti, Commit>, then the
Transaction Ti needs to be redone.
o If log contains record <Ti, Start> but does not contain the record either <Ti, commit> or <Ti, abort>, then the
Transaction Ti needs to be undone.

Checkpoint:
o The checkpoint is a type of mechanism where all the previous logs are removed from the system and
permanently stored in the storage disk.
o The checkpoint is like a bookmark. While the execution of the transaction, such checkpoints are
marked, and the transaction is executed then using the steps of the transaction, the log files will be
created.
o When it reaches to the checkpoint, then the transaction will be updated into the database, and till that
point, the entire log file will be removed from the file. Then the log file is updated with the new step
of transaction till next checkpoint and so on.
o The checkpoint is used to declare a point before which the DBMS was in the consistent state, and all
transactions were committed.

Recovery using Checkpoint:

In the following manner, a recovery system recovers the database from this failure:

o The recovery system reads log files from the end to start. It reads log files from T4 to T1.
o Recovery system maintains two lists, a redo-list, and an undo-list.
o The transaction is put into redo state if the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> and <Tn,
Commit> or just <Tn, Commit>. In the redo-list and their previous list, all the transactions are
removed and then redone before saving their logs.
o For example: In the log file, transaction T2 and T3 will have <Tn, Start> and <Tn, Commit>. The
T1 transaction will have only <Tn, commit> in the log file. That's why the transaction is committed
after the checkpoint is crossed. Hence it puts T1, T2 and T3 transaction into redo list.
o The transaction is put into undo state if the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> but no
commit or abort log found. In the undo-list, all the transactions are undone, and their logs are
removed.
o For example: Transaction T4 will have <Tn, Start>. So T4 will be put into undo list since this
transaction is not yet complete and failed amid.