IIT DELHI

POWER QUALITY
PROJECT ON GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

RAHUL R 2011EEP2378

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 2 THE SOLAR CELL .............................................................................................................................. 2 Crystalline Silicon .................................................................................................................... 3 Thin Film .................................................................................................................................. 3 Organic/Polymer Solar Cells ................................................................................................... 3 INTERCONNECTION OF SOLAR CELLS.............................................................................................. 4 EVOLUTION OF INVERTER TOPOLOGIES ......................................................................................... 5 1. 2. 3. 4. GRID TIE INVERTERS ..................................................................................................... 5 STRING INVERTERS ....................................................................................................... 6 MICRO INVERTERS ........................................................................................................ 7 MULTI STRING INVERTERS ............................................................................................ 7

INVERTER CONCEPTS- EVOLUTION ................................................................................................. 8 ISLANDING..................................................................................................................................... 10 MICRO INVERTER SCHEMES.......................................................................................................... 13 DC-AC Power Unbalance ....................................................................................................... 13 Hybrid PWM/Unfolder Inverter mode.................................................................................. 18 QUASI Z SOURCE INVERTER .......................................................................................................... 19 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 21

INTRODUCTION
Mankind has witnessed an exponential pace of development in the last one or two centuries. Standards of living improved vastly as production was standardized by Industrialisation. One of the important factors which made this possible was the availability of electric power as the invention of electricity was the corner stone for further Industrialisation all around the world. The so called luxury which we humans enjoy did not come free as we realize today. The bulk of the power plants which produced power came from unclean fuels like coal and gas which produce a lot of emission of greenhouse gases which took its toll on the environment. Also, the possibility of extinguishment of the fossil fuels led to thought regarding the future of energy generation and the answer has been Renewable energy. Solar and Wind play a key role in the renewable energy production today. Lower foot print, Cost, Efficiency and more power availability (even during night) considerations make wind power desirable, while Maintenance, inability of storage and loss of aesthetics go against wind. Faster installation, zero maintenance and scalability (ability to add more solar modules at will later on) make solar desirable while, life cycle cost to environment, Cost of installation and life of cells are the factors which go against solar energy production. Nevertheless, solar farm installations are becoming wide spread even in developing countries like India with firms installing farms as large as 400 MW. The topic of this report being Grid Connected PV System, thus we wont dwell on other forms of renewable energy production. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and landmasses is approximately 3,850,000 EJ per year but only a fraction of that is captured for electrical power production. The world solar PV market installation reached a record high of 5.95 GW in 2008. Thus there is tremendous potential in PV. This report will essentially look at interconnection with grid for domestic applications. Large scale commercial grid interfaces though similar is not dwelled upon.

THE SOLAR CELL

We shall talk briefly about solar cells in general before moving to the power electronic related details. The PV market is currently dominated by wafer based Crystalline Silicon Cells with efficiency about 13-17%, but thinner wafers are being developed in order to reduce costs and increase efficiency. Solar Cell works based on the principle of photo electric effect for which Einstein got the Nobel prize in 1905. It is composed of at thin film of silicon wafer on which when light falls eject electrons which become available for conduction. 2

Different types of material are used for production of the cells. Crystalline Silicon By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer. Thin Film Thin film reduces the amount of silicon required to make the cell. Most thin film solar cells are sandwiched between two panes of glass to make a module. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels. The majority of film panels have significantly lower conversion efficiencies, lagging silicon by two to three percentage points. Thin-film solar technologies have enjoyed large investment due to the success of First Solar and the largely unfulfilled promise of lower cost and flexibility compared to wafer silicon cells, but they have not become mainstream solar products due to their lower efficiency and corresponding larger area consumption per watt production. Cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (A-Si) are three thin-film technologies often used as outdoor photovoltaic solar power production. CdTe technology is most cost competitive among them Organic/Polymer Solar Cells Organic solar cells are a relatively novel technology, yet hold the promise of a substantial price reduction (over thin-film silicon) and a faster return on investment. These cells can be processed from solution, hence the possibility of a simple roll-to-roll printing process, leading to inexpensive, large scale production. Nowadays it is mandatory that production, distribution and use of electrical energy are done as efficiently as possible. In the Distributed Generation systems, which has already become popular, all the drawbacks of energy distribution is overcome, and for the end-user Power Electronics plays a fundamental role in developing power converters that are more efficient and reliable. The development of photovoltaic energy conversion system has been notable and progressive. Every year the prices of solar cells are decreasing and the installed PV systems are increasing at rates of more than 40% per year, although the total system costs is still higher when compared to other conventional fuels. Thus it is very much important to increase the efficiency of the solar cells and to reduce installation costs. The available efficiency of PV system is improved using maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms, high efficiency solar cells and high efficiency power electronic converters. Mechanical solar trackers are also desirable or mandatory for concentrator photovoltaic. The installation cost is mainly composed of solar cells cost and inverter costs. Cheaper and more efficient solar cells are continuously being developed by respected research centers worldwide and they are close to reach the 3

market expectations. Power converters also must reduce their cost, improve efficiency and increase lifetime. It should be pointed out that the solar panels are almost reaching the same cost/watt ratio as the power converters which will soon out pressure on the power electronic engineers to optimize the cost and to come up with alternate cheap solutions. Another trend is in the field of power converters, where the use of Silicon Carbide semiconductors will permit higher switching frequencies without significant increase of losses, and reliable operation with higher junction temperatures. That means reduction of reactive elements and heat sinks, in order to manufacture converters with low weight, volume and cost. Furthermore, the integration of power electronics into the PV module offers new advances but also represents motivating challenges. In this new approach it is necessary to develop converters which will be capable to boost the low voltage of the PV panel with high currents without significant losses. Another point will be the series connection of few modules that can make the system more reliable reducing the payback time. Finally, the overall grid connected system efficiency and reliability can be improved with digital control concepts, which can create even more efficient algorithms.

INTERCONNECTION OF SOLAR CELLS

Solar Cells need to be invariably connected in series to get higher voltage to form what are called solar modules. The typical power ratings of such solar modules are between 10 Wpeak and 100 Wpeak. These modules are again connected in series or parallel before being connected to the inverter (this is one scheme of connection to be discussed). The interconnection is done using fused and diodes. More modules are inter-connected to form solar panels and these are in turn connected to form finally, the solar arrays.

Fig 1

The string diodes are required to block reverse current from flowing into the cells when some cells are under lit compared to the cell to which it is connected in parallel with. Fuses are provided in order to cut off the current in case the current supplied by the cell exceeds the safe range of operation.

Fig 2 Diodes are also required in parallel with the cells so that if the cell gets partially shadowed, the cell may be bypassed. If this is not done it will lead to deterioration of the other cells as well connected in series with it. The diode gets forward biased and bypasses only when the cell is shadowed thus increasing the resistance of the cell..

EVOLUTION OF INVERTER TOPOLOGIES

1. GRID TIE INVERTERS

Fig 3

Initially, the interface between Photovoltaic power supply and the grid relied on the centralized inverter technology, as shown in fig 3. Inverters are connected in into series, called strings, generating a sufficient high voltage to avoid amplification. All strings are then connected in parallel to support high power to output. Only one inverter is utilized to interface the grid. This technology suffers from disadvantages, including high voltage DC cable from a big number of strings between the PV modules, the inverter losses, losses in the string diodes, and a nonflexible design where the benefits of mass production could not be reached. This structure is also limited from Maximum Power Point (MPP) Tracking and controlling mismatch between strings so individual PVs, resulting in low efficiency and reliability. The nonflexible design makes it less appealing in mass production. With all these issues, this technology is not used in new solar systems installation these days. As mentioned before, String fuses protect the modules and wires in a string from the rest of the system. However, for high currents to circulate in string conductors, two simultaneous faults must occur. The blocking diode must fail shorted (unlikely), and a ground fault in the array must occur. This scenario does not justify the use of fuses in PV systems. Thus different topologies were come up with eliminating the fuses. 2. STRING INVERTERS This technology, shown in Fig. 4, illustrates effort to solve problems of the previous design. It has a string of inverters connected in series with an AC module. Here in each string is provided with a separate inverter and inverters are connected in parallel on the ac side. While still avoiding high voltage amplification, this structure has improved performance with no diode loss in series, separate MPP tracking for each string and lower cost with mass productions. The inverter can be implemented with high voltage MOSFET/IGBT. It is possible to have less PVs in string with voltage amplification by DC-DC converter or a line frequency transformer, which increases total area. Although having been introduced to the market for about 10 years, this structure remains a favorite structure in new installation. However, in a common scenario of partial shading, MPP tracking may still not be sufficient to achieve a certain efficiency requirement. This completely eliminated the dc wiring.

Fig 4 6

3. MICRO INVERTERS The micro-inverter solution, also called AC module, shown in Fig. 5, is the integration of PV and inverter into one electrical device. With only one PV to control, there is no PV mismatch. MPP tracking can be done at individual PV level, maximizing possible efficiency. As it is modularized, the micro-inverter is good for mass production, which potentially leads to low manufacturing cost and low retail prices. This technology is also very appropriate for residential applications with low power requirements and where partial shading is a critical issue. This type of inverter is also designed with a plug and play feature so that it can be installed without a deep electrical knowledge. However, if implemented by a big number for industrial applications, due to the distributed installation, the maintenance requirements can increase the cost and discourage wide usage. To keep inverter boxes watertight and use components that have large temperature ambient is major concerns. It will be necessary to develop a system that can detect failure of any micro-inverter and isolate it immediately. This type of inverter has recently become the most favoured product and promises a remarkable market share in future.

Fig 5 4. MULTI STRING INVERTERS Multi-string inverter, shown in Fig. 6, features the optimal MPP tracking for a single string of PVs. In this structure, DC-DC converter is implemented for each string for MPP tracking and power combination of different string to a DC bus. A big power stage works as a grid connected half bridge inverter without transformer. The multi-string inverter is useful when PV strings of different rated power, different orientation are combined. The DC-DC part can be implemented with high-frequency pulse width modulation (PWM) converter to reduce implementation area

Fig 6 The future trend will be to remove the dc-dc converter as well and implement a boost inverter whose details will be discussed later on.

INVERTER CONCEPTS- EVOLUTION

The First Generation if inverters had the line commutated type of inverters and used thyristors. The power factor and efficiency of these were very low and soon inverters with HF isolation transformers came into the picture. These provided galvanic isolation and also the efficiency and size reduced. A typical scheme is given below. This concept though an improvement from the former needed a lot of components and thus proved slight unreliable. Also the presence of transformer contributed to losses and people observed that designs without transformer led to an increase in efficiency of up to 2%. Thus new design came with LF transformers (Fig. 8)

Fig 7

Fig 8 Eliminating the transformer as was important from efficiency point of view, by 1995 such inverters started appearing in the market.

Fig 9 The factor by which an inverter is usually judged is by Efficiency Harmonics injected in to grid Protection for islanding EMI interference MPPT tracking efficiency 9

The MPPT tracking efficiency is defined as below

MPTT

1 = PMPP .TM

TM

u
0

(t ).iA (t )dt

(eq. 1)

Where ua(t) is the array voltage, ia(t) is the array current, Pmpp is the available maximum PV power and Tm is the duration of measurement.

ISLANDING
"Islanding" or isolated operation usually refers to the continued generation from grid connected photovoltaic systems following the interruption of utility power. Such islanding or run-on conditions may pose a safety hazard to utility personnel or endanger the integrity of protective and other utility equipment. Line-crew personnel, working to repair a fault occurring on the grid, may mistakenly consider the load side of the line to be inactive. In fact, islanded PV sources may be feeding power back to the grid through power conditioning equipment which is normally designed to shut down when such events occur. Also, depending on the duration of the islanding operation, automatic reconnection of the PV system may present severe resynchronization problems resulting in even damage to PV equipment. Thus Islanding is an event which is to be closely monitored, detected and suitable action taken upon. Let us first analyze the method by which the islanding is detected. For this, a simple PV system shown below is considered.

Fig 10

10

The above as seen includes a PV system, a local load (a parallel RLC circuit has been used as load), a switch (re-closer, circuit breaker, fuse, etc.), and the utility voltage source. Equations below describe the real and reactive power being consumed by the RLC load. The power equation (eq.2) shows that if the real power production of the PV system and the real power demand of the load are not matched at the time when the switch is opened, then the RMS voltage at node a in Figure 10, V*, must increase or decrease until Pload= Pgen (assuming R to be constant over the time interval of interest).

Pload

Va 2 = R
1 Cw) Lw

(eq.2)

Qload = Va 2 (

(eq.3)

Similarly, if the reactive power production of the PV system and the reactive demand of the load are not matched, then when the utility is disconnected Equation (2) indicates that w, the frequency of the voltage at node a, must change until Qload= Qpv. The mechanism by which this happens is that the PV system will seek a frequency at which the current-voltage phase angle of the load equals that of the PV system. Thus if we assume that the PV system generation and the load demand are not very closely matched which rarely is, then the frequency will change by finite quantity which may be sensed by using PLL circuitry, the output of which may be used to stop the generation of power by PV system. This may be done by stopping the pulses to the inverter. The circuitry is explained now. A reference rectified sine wave voltage is generated internally and locked to the line by use of the digital PLL circuitry. Current delivered to the line is automatically in phase with the voltage once it is brought into synchronization with the line through the PLL circuitry. A phase discrepancy between the line and the reference signal is used to destabilize the loop and upon line disconnection resulting in inverter shut down. Thus it is the PLL which play an important role in interrupting the power flow from the inverter to the grid. Now, an important problem surfaces when the PV system generation and the load demand are very closely matched when the utility is cut off. In this case, the changes in voltage and/or frequency may be insufficient to enable detection by the PV system. Therefore, there is a need to develop special islanding prevention techniques which can detect islanding when the PV system and load are very closely matched.

11

For such a condition, certain active detection techniques have been proposed. One such method is active frequency drift method, the basics of which are laid out here. Here in, the current waveform generated by the inverter is made to be deliberately non-sinusoidal. A typical waveform is shown below.

Fig 11 Tvutil is the period of the utility voltage, Tlpv is the period of the sinusoidal portion of the current output of the PV system, and t, is a dead or zero time. The ratio of the zero time t, to half of the period of the voltage waveform, Tvutil/2, is referred to as the chopping fraction (CF). During the first portion of the first half-cycle, the PV systems current output is a sinusoid with a frequency slightly higher than that of the utility voltage. When the PV output current reaches zero, it remains at zero for time t, before beginning the second half cycle. For the first part of the second half-cycle, the PV output current is the negative half of the sine wave from the first half-cycle. When the PV current again reaches zero, it remains at zero until the rising zero crossing of the utility voltage. It is important to note that the zero time in the second half cycle is not fixed by the PV system and need not equal tz. During normal conditions, due to the effect of grid voltage the voltage across load will be same as the grid frequency. When the grid becomes unavailable, due to non-sinusoidality the voltage across the load, will follow the above fig (assuming the load to be resistive) and thus will have a frequency slightly greater than the reference of PLL. Thus progressively the PLL will fall out of step and the output to the inverter may be stopped.

12

MICRO INVERTER SCHEMES

The Micro inverter topology being the contemporary technology, this needs to be dealt with in further detail. The inverter schemes and the problems with interface are discussed here in. According to the AC solar module concept, single PV modules are directly connected to the AC grid through a DC/DC converter and an inverter. However, in this case a periodical power unbalance is generated because the power drawn by a single-phase residential grid features a large ripple at twice the fundamental frequency, i.e, the power in single phase circuit varies sinusoidally. The power produced by PV modules is a DC power. When these two are to be interfaced a definite power unbalance occurs instantaneously. Such a power unbalance affects the Maximum Power Point Tracking and forces the system to operate under suboptimal conditions and is faced with the introduction of bulky electrolytic capacitors. The electrolytic capacitors are the main components which limit the life of power electronic circuits and thus need to be removed somehow. Various topologies have been introduced to this effect. The DC/DC converter is cascade connected to an inverter, tasked to generate the grid AC voltage. Pulse-width modulation techniques are generally exploited to obtain the AC voltage from the DC/DC converter output voltage, but at the cost of additional power losses. An alternative solution has been proposed in the past consisting in delivering a rectified sine wave voltage to the inverter, rather than the conventional constant dc voltage. The inverter, in this case, is not asked to modulate the voltage, but only to unfold the rectified sine wave input voltage. Working as unfolder the inverter switches at line frequency, reaching a higher efficiency. A rectified AC voltage could be generated by suitably controlling a step-down DC/DC converter. However, it cannot be generated by the considered DIBC, which is basically a step up converter. A hybrid approach has been then developed as a compromise between the needs to use the DIBC topology and to operate the inverter in unfolder mode. In practice the inverter modulates the DC/DC output voltage only when the reference output voltage is lower than the minimum DIBC output voltage. Therefore, switching power losses are largely reduced as the inverter operates as unfolder for more than one half period of the AC voltage DC-AC Power Unbalance PV systems for residential application are generally connected to single phase grids. Under the hypothesis of maximum power factor and no power losses, PAC(t), the power delivered to the ac grid and PPV, the DC power provided by PV modules are given by, PAC (t ) = VAC I AC (1 cos(2 wt )) PPV = VAC I AC (eq. 4)

13

Where, VAC and IAC are respectively the RMS values of the AC voltage vAC(t) and the AC current iAC(t); while, VPV and IPV are the output voltage and current of PV modules. According to eq. (4) the power delivered to the grid contains a large ripple at twice the frequency of the AC voltage. On the other hand, the power generated by the PV generator is equal to the average power delivered to the single phase grid. Therefore, a power unbalance P(t) is generated, given by:

P(t ) = PAC (t ) PPV (t ) = VAC I AC cos(2wt )

(eq. 5)

Such a power unbalance generates a voltage ripple vPV at the output of PV modules. This causes a periodical oscillation of the Working Point (WP) around the MPP, as shown in Fig. 12, responsible for a remarkable efficiency drop. In order to obtain a sufficiently high efficiency the amplitude of the voltage ripple vPV must be generally kept lower than 9% of the MPP voltage. Therefore, passive low frequency ripple reduction techniques have been experimented in the past, exploiting bulky electrolytic capacitor banks, either on the low voltage DC bus and either on the high voltage side. The DC bus capacitance to compensate for this voltage ripple may be calculated from
C= PPV 2 wVMPP vPV

(eq. 6)

Fig 12 A Double Interleaved Boost Converter is usually the preferred inverter these days for DC/AC conversion. The circuit for this and the switching is discussed in detail.

14

The DIBC is equipped with two power switches operated with a half period delay. Control signals of the two devices are shown in Fig. 14. Each switch is turned on more than one half period. Therefore, periodically the two switches are jointly conducting (Fig. 13a). Along such a period the two input inductances are charged from the input power source, while no current flows through the primary winding of the transformer and the energy stored in the output capacitor is used to sustain the load. When one of the two devices is turned off, one of the two input inductances is discharged through the primary winding of the transformer, transferring power to the secondary (Fig. 13b). A current is then supplied to the output electrolytic capacitor through a diode rectifier. The two devices are then turned on jointly again (Fig. 13c) and the second device is finally turned off (Fig. 3d) to transfer power to the output capacitor. As long as one of the two switches is turned on, the DIBC cannot work in discontinuous conduction mode, due to the magnetizing inductance of the transformer. Therefore, the converter can only operate in continuous conduction mode, or in the boundary mode. The output voltage Vout is then related to the input voltage VPV and the duty cycle by:
VOUT = 1 ntVPV 1

(eq. 7)

Where 0.5<<1 and nt is the transformer turns ratio.

15

Fig 13

16

Fig 14 Usually active clamping circuits are required to dissipate energy stored in leakage inductances. A Buck converter exploiting a third auxiliary switch is then generally used to regenerate the power back to the dc power supply.

Fig 15 As shown in the above figure, the power stream may be diverted to dump capacitor if the two devices are synchronously turned on and off. In this case, the converter works as a boost converter and a null voltage is generated on the secondary of the transformer. For this the switching patterns need to be modified as shown in Fig 16 below. More precisely, the DIBC output voltage Vout is related to the input voltage VPV by eq. 8. In fact, a DIBC working in the conventional way always operates in continuous conduction mode, or in the boundary mode, while a null secondary transformer voltage is generated when the converter is operated as boost,
VOUT = 1 ntVPV 2(1 )

(eq. 8)

17

Fig 16 Hybrid PWM/Unfolder Inverter mode The DC/DC converter supplies an inverter tasked to generate the output AC current to be injected into the grid. According to the traditional approach the inverter input voltage is kept constant by the DC/DC converter control system. Therefore, a Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) technique is exploited to generate sinusoidal current and voltage waveforms. However, the PWM voltage modulation introduces additional conduction and switching power losses. If the DC/DC converter is controlled in order to generate a rectified sinusoidal output voltage waveform, the inverter can be operated as an unfolder, simplifying the circuital design and minimizing the switching power losses. Unfortunately, the DIBC here considered acts as step-up converter, therefore it is unable to generate a voltage lower than:

VOUT min = ntVPV

(eq. 9)

A hybrid PWM/unfolder strategy has been then developed in an effort to reduce the additional inverter switching power losses. According to such a strategy the DIBC is commanded to generate the voltage waveform sketched in Fig. 17. According to such a diagram a minimum output voltage level Voutmin is defined, preventing the reference voltage to fall down the minimum voltage obtainable from the DIBC. The inverter is then operated as unfolder when the reference voltage is higher than Vout, while PWM is performed when the reference voltage is constant. According to such a strategy additional inverter switching losses are avoided over a large part of the period of the AC voltage. In the rest of the period power losses are anyway reduced as the inverter switches at a lower voltage if compared with the traditional approach.

18

Fig 17

QUASI Z SOURCE INVERTER

All the inverter topologies discussed until now had a dc-dc converter at the input. This is because the inverter used is a traditional VSI based inverter. If a boost inverter can be implemented, the dc-dc converter may be done away with. This is the kind of inverter topology towards which research is progressing now thus eliminating one stage and thus increasing the efficiency. As the ZSI can boost the DC voltage without any dc-dc converter, the power circuit can be simplified, and the total volume of the system can be reduced. Although the ZSI makes it possible to use PV which has a wide range voltage change, it draws a discontinuous dc current from the PV array, which is a series problem at the PV power condition system (PCS). The quasiZSI (QZSI) has been reported for the PV generation system. The QZI draws a continuous and constant dc current, and also the voltage of one capacitor at the Z-source network is greatly reduced. Thus, the QZSI is more suitable for the PV-PCS. The topology of the same is shown below (Fig 18). It consists of inductors L1, L2 and capacitors C1, C2 coupling the single-phase inverter and PV array. The QZSI has two operating modes: non shoot-through mode and shoot-through mode. In the non-short-through mode, the QZSI has two active vectors when the dc voltage is impressed across the single-phase grid, and two zero vectors when either the lower or upper three switching devices are conducting. In the shoot-through mode, the load terminals are shorted both the upper and lower switching devices of any phase legs. The shoot-through state is forbidden in the traditional inverter.

19

Fig 18 Fig. 19 shows the modified pulse patterns for one switching period of a space vector PWM technique. Unlike the traditional pulse pattern, the modified pulse pattern has an additional shoot-through time for boosting dc voltage besides time intervals Ta, T0. The zero voltage period should be diminished for generating a shoot-through time, and the active state Ta is unchanged. The time Tsh, Ta, and T0 are symmetrically assigned to each half period. The figure shows the switching patterns when the ref voltage is +ve and Fig 20 shows that when the ref is ve.

Fig 19

20

Fig 20 When the reference voltage is positive, the switching patterns are shown in Fig. 19. The pulses of switching devices S1, S2 is modulated with a shoot through time while the switching device S3 is in the non-conducting state and S4 is in the conducting state. When the reference voltage is negative, the switching patterns are shown in Fig. 20. The pulses of switching devices S3, S4 is modulated while the switching device S1 is in the non-conducting state and S2 is in the conducting state. As the number of switching state during one switching period at the proposed switching patterns is reduced by four, the switching loss can be decreased. Implementation of MPP is done by adjusting the shoot through time in the switching function.

CONCLUSION
Various aspects of grid inter connection of Solar PV systems have been considered for largely domestic kind of applications. The future of solar PV- grid connected as well as stand-alone is very promising. Stand-alone systems will also become popular especially with planned dc grids in large homes. As of now, grid connected systems rule the industry. There are a lot of challenges with respect to cost as well as efficiency consideration. Power Electronics will play a major role in refining the current and developing new technology for various applications.

21