Bipolar Junction Transistors

Types of Transistors
There are two types of transistors, namely bipolar junction transistor (BJT), field effect
transistors (FET). A small current is flowing between the base and the emitter; base terminal can
control a larger current flow between the collector and the emitter terminals. For a field – effect
transistor, it also has the three terminals, they are gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate
can control a current between source and drain. The simple diagrams of BJT and FET are shown in
Figure below.
A transistor is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P - type or n - type) between two layers
of other type. [P-type or n-type]

Source

Drain
Collector Emitter Gate
Base

Figure: Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) Figure : Field effect transistors (FET)

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Transistors are classified into types:
1. pnp transistor
pnp transistor is obtained when a n - type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two p - type
silicon material.
2. npn transistor
npn transistor is obtained when a p - type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two n - type
silicon materials.
Figure a b o v e shows the schematic representations of a transistor which is equivalent of two
diodes connected back to back. Figure above show symbolic representation of Bipolar junction
transistor.
Figure shows the schematic representation of pnp and npn transistors. The three terminals of
transistors are named as emitter, base and collector. The junction between emitter and base is called
emitter – base junction while the junction between the collector and base is called collector – base
junction. The base is thin and lightly doped, the emitter is heavily doped and it is wider when
compared to base, the width of the collector is more when compared to both base and emitter. In
order to distinguish the emitter and collector an arrow is included in the emitter.
 NPN PNP
C C

B B

0 E E

Symbol Symbol
C C

B B

E E

Figure: Bipolar junction transistor

JE JC JE JC

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

p n p n p n

Base Base

Figure: Schematic representation

The direction of the arrow depends on the conventional flow of current when emitter base
junction is forward biased. In a pnp transistor when the emitter junction is forward biased the
flow of current is from emitter to base hence, the arrow in the emitter of pnp points towards the
base.
Emitter Collector
Emitter Collector

Base Base

pnp npn
Figure: Symbolic representation

Operating Regions of a Transistor

A transistor can be operated in three different regions, namely
a. active region b. saturation region c. cut-off region
Active region
The transistor is said to be operated in active region when the emitter – base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junction is reverse biased. The collector current is said to have two current
components one is due to the forward biasing of EB junction and the other is due to reverse biasing
of CB junction. The collector current component due to the reverse biasing of the collector junction
is called reverse saturation current (ICO or ICBO) and it is very small in magnitude. Figure below
shows the operation of p-n-p transistor in active region.
E JE B JC C

p n p

VEB VCB

Figure : pnp transistor operated in active region

Saturation region E JE B JC C

p n p

VEB VCB

Figure : pnp transistor operated in Saturation region

Transistor is said to be operated in saturation region when both EB junction and CB junction are
forward biased as shown. When transistor is operated in saturation region IC increases rapidly for
a very small change in VC. Figure above shows the operation of p-n-p transistor in saturation region.
Cut-off region

E JE B JC C

p n p

VEB VCB

Figure: pnp transistor operated in Cut-off region

When both EB junction and CB junction are reverse biased, the transistor is said to
be operated in cut-off region. In this region, the current in the transistor is very small and thus
when a transistor in this region it is assumed to be in off state. Figure above shows the operation
of p-n-p transistor in cut-off region.

Working of a Transistor
Operation Principle of PNP Transistors
Narrow depletion region Wideband
depletion region

IE
IC
E C
JE B JC B
E C

p n p
increased

+
+ – –
VEB VCB

Figure: PNP Transistor operated in active region

Consider a pnp transistor operated in active region as shown in Figure above. Since the EB
junction is forward biased large number of holes present in the emitter are majority carriers.
They are repelled by the positive potential of the supply voltage VEB and they move towards the
base region causing emitter current IE. Since the base is thin and lightly doped very few of the
holes coming from the emitter recombine with the electron causing base current IB. All the
remaining holes move towards the collector. Since the CB junction is reverse biased all the holes
are immediately attracted by the negative potential of the supply VCB. Thereby giving rise to
collector current IC.
Thus we see that IE = IB + IC
Since the CB junction is reverse biased a small minority carrier current ICO flows from
base to collector.
Operation Principle of NPN Transistor
Consider a npn transistor operated in active region as shown in Figure below. Since the emitter base
junction is forward biased, large number of electrons present in the emitter are majority charge
carriers are repelled by negative potential of the supply voltage VEB and they move towards the base
region causing emitter current IE. Since the base is thin and lightly doped very few of the electrons
from the emitter recombine with the holes causing base current IB and all the remaining electrons
move towards the collector. Since the collector to base (CB) junction is reverse by the positive
potential of the supply VCB.
N P N

C IC
E
B

VEB VBC

Figure : NPN transistor operated in active region

Thereby giving rise to collector current IC. Thus the Emitter current
is given by
 Current Components of a Transistor
Figure below shows a transistor operated in active region. It can be noted from the
diagram that the battery VEB forward biases the EB junction while the battery VCB reverse
biases the CB junction. As the EB junction is forward biased the holes from emitter region flow
towards the base causing a hole current IPE. At the same time, the electrons from base region flow
towards the emitter causing an electron current INE. Sum of these two currents constitute an emitter
current IE = IPE + INE.

JE JC
IPE IPC

IE (hole current) (hole current)

IC
INE(e current) ICO

IB
VEB VCB

Figure : Current components of a transistor

The ratio of hole current IPE to electron current INE is directly proportional to the ratio of the
conductivity of the p-type material to that of n - type material. Since, emitter is highly doped
when compared to base; the emitter current consists almost entirely of holes.
Not all the holes, crossing EB junction reach the CB junction because some of the them combine
with the electrons in the n - type base. If IPC is the hole current at CB junction (Jc). There
will be a recombination current (IPE, IPC) leaving the base as shown in Figure. If emitter is open
circuited, no charge carriers are injected from emitter into the base and hence emitter
current IE = 0. Under this condition CB junction acts a reverse biased diode and
therefore the collector current ( IC – ICO) will be equal to to reverse saturation
current. Therefore when EB junction is forward biased and collector base junction
is reverse biased the total collector current IC = IPC + ICO.

Transistor Configuration
We know that, transistor can be used as an amplifier. For an amplifier, two terminals are required
to supply the weak signal and two terminals to collect the amplified signal. Thus four terminals
are required but a transistor is said to have only three terminals. Therefore, one terminal is used
common for both input and output.
This gives rise to three different combinations.
1. Common base configuration (CB)
2. Common emitter configuration (CE)
3. Common collector configuration (CC)
4.1 DC Loadline and Operating Point

The DC loadline for a transistor is a straight line drawn on the output characteristics which
gives the various zero signal values (in the absence of ac signal) of VCE and IC. A point on a
DC loadline which represents the zero signal values of VCEQ and ICQ in a transistor is called as
Q point or quiescent operating point. The Q-point is selected where the DC load line intersect
the curve of BJT output characteristics.
⯈ When an ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, IC and VCE will both vary
around their Q-point values.
⯈ When the Q-point is, IC and VCE can both make the maximum possible transitions
above and below their initial dc values.
⯈ When the Q-point is the center on the load line, the input signal may cause the
transistor to saturate. When this happens, a part of the output signal will be
clipped off.
⯈ When the Q-point is midpoint on the load line the input signal may cause the transistor to
cut-off. This can also cause a portion of the output signal to be clipped.
VCC

iC RC

C +
RB VCE or Vo
B –
+
VBB
iB VBE E
–

Figure: Fixed bias circuit

 Consider a fixed bias circuit as shown in Figure 4.10 for the analysis of DC
load lines.

IC
DC load line
1
VCC Slope = –
I =
C
RC

Q
i

IC

VCE(V)
VCE
VCE = VCC

Figure 4.11: Plot of dc load line and Q point

Output Circuit

Apply KVL to C-E voltage loop,

VCC = IC RC + VCE

IC = (VCC – VCE) / RC

Graphical construction of IC and VCE:

IC = (VCC – VCE) / RC

If VCE = 0 IC = VCC/RC Point on y-axis

If IC = 0 VCE = VCC Point on x-axis

Plotting of Q-point and DC loadline is as shown in Figure