ON FIXING SETS OF COMPOSITION

PRODUCT OF GRAPHS

By

MUHAMMAD AHMAD RAZA

MCEMT-12-28
———————————————
BS MATHEMATICS (4-Years)

GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE MULTAN

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

ON FIXING SETS OF COMPOSITION

PRODUCT OF GRAPHS
 By

MUHAMMAD AHMAD RAZA

SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCES IN MATHEMATICS (4-YEARS)
AT GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE BOSAN ROAD, MULTAN JUNE, 2017

GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE MULTAN

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE MULTAN DEPARTMENT

OF MATHEMATICS

The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend
to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance of a project entitled
“On Fixing Sets of Composition Product of Graphs” by Muhammad
Ahmad Raza in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Sciences in Mathematics (4-Years).

ii
 Dated: June, 2017

External Examiner:
Prof. Ghulam Sarwar

Research Supervisor:
Muhammad Shahbaz Aasi

Head of Department:
Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal

iii
 GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE MULTAN
CERTIFICATE

Date: June, 2017

Student: Muhammad Ahmad Raza

Title: On Fixing Sets of Composition Product of Graphs

Department: Mathematics

Degree: BS Mathematics (4-Years) Convocation: June Year: 2017

iv
 It is certified that Muhammad Ahmad Raza has completed his project
work entitled: “On Fixing Sets of Composition Product of Graphs” for the
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Sciences in
Mathematics (4-Years) under my supervision.

—————————————————
Muhammad Shahbaz Aasi
Lecturer
Govt. Emerson College, Multan. Department
of Mathematics.
GOVERNMENT EMERSON COLLEGE MULTAN
DECLARATION

Date: June, 2017

I, Muhammad Ahmad Raza, Roll no: MCEMT-12-28 student of Bachelor of Sciences in

Mathematics (4-Years), Session 2012-2016, hereby declare that the matter printed on this
project entitled: “On Fixing Sets of Composition Product of Graphs” is my own work and
has not been submitted as a whole or in part for any degree or diploma at this institute or
any other institute.

Muhammad Ahmad Raza

v
 DEDICATION
To my respected teachers, parents, siblings, classmates, friends
and the elders whose prayers, sacrifices and efforts made it
possible.

vi
Table of Contents
Table of Contents viii
Abstract x
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
1 Basic Terminologies And Definitions 5
1.1 Basic Definitions And Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Basic Types of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Directed Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Undirected Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 General Types of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Terminologies of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Important Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Graph Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.1 Adjacency Matrix and Adjacency List . . . . . . 17
1.7 Applications of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.1 Examples of Applications of Graphs . . . . . . . . 18
2 Fixing Sets of Graphs 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Path Graphs . . . . .21

vii
2.2.2 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Cyclic Graphs . . . . 21
2.2.3 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Tree Graphs . . . . .22
2.3 Other related Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Examples .......................... 25
2.5.1 Example: 2.1 .................... 25 2.5.2 Example:
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Bibliography 31

viii
Abstract
A Fixing set F of the graph X is the set of vertices of the graph X when we fix it in the
graph, the graph will not attain its similar structure and remove all the
automorphisms except the graph with only one vertex. For any positive integer n > 1
the maximum fixing numbers for n vertices is n − 1. For path graphs, the fixing
number is 1 in two or more than two nodes. For cyclic graphs, the fixing number is 2
in three or more than three vertices or nodes. The number of vertices in the smallest
fixing set means the minimum cardinality of fixing set is called Fixing number,
denoted by fix(X) [10].

In this project, we study the fixing number fix(X) of composition product X1[X2] of

two graphs X1 and X2 with |X1| = m and |X2| = n. We show that X1 be a connected Graph

and X2 be any arbitrary graph than (i) If a ∈ O(b) for two distinct vertices a,b ∈ P(X1)

than (a,i) ∈ O(b,i) ∀ i ∈ P(X2), where (a,i),(b,i) ∈ P(X1[X2]). (ii) If j ∈ O(i) for two

distinct vertices i,j ∈ P(X2) than (a,j) ∈ O(a,i) ∀ a ∈ P(X1) in

P(X1[X2]) [16].

ix
Introduction

Everything in the world has its beginning.

For example: Earth began with big bang, Math started with counting number 1, etc.

Similarly, graph theory started with Euler formula for finding the solution of “Seven
Bridges of Konigsberg” problem.

Long time ago in 1735, there was a person whose name was Leonhard Euler who
built the base of graph theory [8]. At that time, there was a famous problem of the
“Seven Bridges of Konigsberg”. In this problem, someone had to cross all the bridges
for only once. Euler proved to have no solution of this problem by representing it as
a graph in nice path shape in a set of nodes and links. This result of no solution of
this problem in graphical representation made the foundation of graph theory and
its further improvements in the field. The Eularian graph of The “Seven Bridges of
Konigsberg” is represented below:
A
g

c d

B D
e

a b
f
C

Figure 1: “Seven Bridges of Konigsberg”

The first paper in the history of the graph theory was written by Euler on the

“Seven Bridges of Konigsberg” problem and it was published in 1736. After that

Vandermonde and Leibniz wrote a paper on Knight problem and both papers carried

on with the analysis sites started by Leibniz [4].

 2

Graph Theory introduced the other branches of mathematics, as Cauchy and

L’Huillier studied and generalized the convex polyhedron with the help of Euler’s

formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces and represents the

beginning of the branch of mathematics known as topology [7]. There was no

progress in graph theory for hundred plus years after the Euler’s paper on the

bridges of Konigsberg, while Listing was introducing the concepts of topology. The

type of graph, Tree, was introduced by Cayley in particular analytical forms arising

from differential calculus. By tree graph, there had many illustrations for theoretical

chemistry (specially for carbohydrates) by enumeration of graphs with particular

properties. Cayley introduced Enumerative graph theory and its fundamental results

published by Polya between 1935 − 37 and these were generalized by De Bruin in

1959. After that the ideas of mathematics were diffused with chemistry by standard

terminologies of the graph theory.

The word graph was first introduced by Sylvester in 1878 and first textbook was

written by Denes Koenig on graph theory in 1936. The other textbook on graph

theory which enabled Mathematicians, Chemists, Electrical Engineers and Social

Scientists to interact each other in graph language was written by Frank Horary in

1969. This book was considered the world over to be the definitive textbook on

graph theory.

For making a map graph, it is very difficult to separate the boundaries by coloring.

This was the famous problem of that time which was known as the four-color

problem [18]: “Is it true for map in 2D may have its regions colored with four colors,

in such a way that any two regions having a common border line have different

colors?” This problem was first introduced by Francis Guthrie in 1852 and first
written record is in a letter of De Morgan sent to Hamilton in 1852 the same year.

Cayley, Kempe, and others gives many incorrect proves but the generalization of this

problem by Tait, Headword, Ramsey and Hadwiger make some different results. Tait

generated a new problem known as factorization problems particularly studied by

Petersen and Koenig. Works on coloration make a new branch of graph theory known

as extremal graph theory in 1941 but the four-color problem remain unsolved for

hundred plus

years.

Heinrich Heesch introduced a method for solving the four-color problem [3] using

computers in 1969. Computer aided prove with 1936 configuration properties

introduced by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken in 1976 but it was not fully

accepted due to its complexity. After twenty years with 633 configurations prove

was introduced by Robertson, Seymour, Sanders and Thomas. Graph theory and

topology developed commonly as the topology develops from 1860−1930 it

develops the graph theory. The techniques of modern algebra was the important

factor of development of graph theory and topology. For example physicist Gustav

Kirchhoff introduced the Kirchhoff’s circuit laws for calculating the voltage and

current in electric circuits in 1845.

Erdos and Rnyi studied the asymptotic probability of graph connectivity that

introduced the probabilistic methods in graph theory resulted in new branch of

graph theory known as random graph theory.

Graph theory is a branch of mathematics concerned about the pictorial

mathematical representation of graphs that consist on vertices and edges in which

their relationship and properties measured. Graph theory relates to algebra,

topology and matrix theory.

 4

For example: In transport geography, transport like road, transit and rail

networks can be defined more clearly by links and nodes. Maritime and air networks

can be defined by links and nodes but the links cannot defined clearly.

A telecommunication system can also be represented in the shape of nodes and

links. This graph is very difficult to present due to the complex structure of links and
nodes. Mobile telephone or the Internet are considered the most difficult graphs and
difficult to symbolize. Mobile phone and antenna can be represented by the nodes
and links while the phone calls are represented as links.

Similarly all things, situations, maps, structures, designs, etc. can be represented
as graphs in graph theory by nodes and links. This was the short introduction of
graph theory and now we will discuss further about project in the next chapters.

Chapter 1
Basic Terminologies And
Definitions

In this chapter we will recall the basic definitions and terminologies about graph
theory for understanding well about this project. We will discuss about graph theory,
graphs, types of graphs and the terminologies which we use in graphs. we will use
these concepts in further chapters of this project.

1.1 Basic Definitions And Concepts

Some basic concepts and definitions are:

Definition 1.1.1. Graph Theory

 Graph theory is a branch of mathematics concerned about the pictorial

mathematical representation of graphs that consist on vertices and edges in which

their relationship and properties are measured.

Definition 1.1.2. Graph

A Graph G is a pictorial representation of set of objects like vertices, nodes or

points V (G) that are connected by edges, arcs or lines E(G) representing any physical

measurements and phenomena.

Figure1.1:AGraph

1.2 Basic Types of Graphs

There are two basic types of graphs

1:Directed Graph

2:Undirected Graph
 6

1.2.1 Directed Graph

A directed graph or digraph G = (V,D) consists of finite set of vertices, nodes or points

V (G) and a finite set of directed edges, arcs or lines D(G) such that Each edge is an

ordered pair of vertices and the directed edges D(G) leaves from one vertex and

enters to another vertex.

 7

Figure1.2:ADirectedGraph

1.2.2 Undirected Graph

An undirected graph G = (V,E) consists of a set of vertices, nodes or points V (G) and a

set of edges, arcs or lines E(G) such that each edge is an unordered pairs of vertices

and the edges are not directed.

Figure1.3:AnUndirectedGraph

1.3 General Types of Graphs

Definition 1.3.1. Simple Graph
A simple graph or strict graph G = (V,E), either connected or disconnected, is
undirected graph containing no loops or multiple edges and consists on only one
type of link between its vertices.
 8

Figure 1.4: A Simple Graph

Definition 1.3.2. Planar Graph and Non-Planar Graph

A graph G = (V,E) where all the intersections of two edges or links is a vertex is a
planar graph and if any intersection of at least two edges is not a vertex then the
graph is non-planar graph.

(A)

(B)

Figure 1.5: (A) Planar (B) Non-planar

Definition 1.3.3. Multigraph

A multigraph G = (V,E) that consists several types of links between its vertices or
nodes V (G) such that some vertices are connected by one type of link and others are
connected by more than one type of links that are running in parallel.

Figure 1.6: A Multigraph

 9

Definition 1.3.4. Empty Graph and Non-Empty graph

A graph G = (V,E) that consists of no vertices or points V (G) is called empty graph
while a graph with some vertices or points V (G) is non-empty graph.

(A) (B)

Figure 1.7: (A) Empty Graph (B) Non-Empty Graph

Definition 1.3.5. Bipartite Graph and Complete Bipartite Graph

A simple undirected graph G = (V,E) whose vertex set V (G) can be divided into
two mutually disjoint non-empty subsets such that each edge connects the vertices
from both subsets but not any edge connects the vertices from same subset is called
bipartite graph and if each vertex from one subset is connected with each vertex in
other subset than the graph is called complete bipartite graph.

(A) Bipertite (B) Complete Bipertite

Figure 1.8: (A) Bipartite (B) Complete Bipartite

Definition 1.3.6. Star Graph

A complete bipartite graph in which only one vertex belongs to one subset and all
other vertices belong to other subset makes a star graph.
 10

Figure 1.9: A Star Graph

Definition 1.3.7. Cycle Graph and Wheel Graph

A simple graph Cn with n number of vertices for n ≥ 3 degree of each vertex in the
graph is two than the graph is Cycle Graph and if we increase number of vertices by
one which is Hub and connected to all the vertices of Cn makes a wheel graph.

(A) (B)

Figure 1.10: (A) Cycle Graph (B) Wheel Graph

Definition 1.3.8. Cyclic Graph and Acyclic Graph

A graph G = (V,E) between any vertices V (G) there exist at least one cycle is called
cyclic graph and if there is no cycle between any vertices than the graph is called
acyclic graph.

(B)
(A)

Figure 1.11: (A) Cyclic Graph (B) Acyclic Graph

 11

Definition 1.3.9. Directed Acyclic Graph

A directed graph G = (V,D) that consists of no cycles with the directed edges D(G)
is called directed acyclic graph.

Figure 1.12: A Directed Acyclic Graph

Definition 1.3.10. Complete Graph

If every vertex in the graph is connected to all other vertices in the graph except
itself such that each distinct pair of vertices are adjacent is called a complete graph.

Figure 1.13: A Complete Graph

Definition 1.3.11. Null Graph and Trivial Graph

A graph G = (V,E) having no edge E(G) is called null graph and a graph with only
one vertex V (G) is called a trivial graph.

(B)

(A)

Figure 1.14: (A) Null Graph (B) Trivial Graph

 12

Definition 1.3.12. Connected Graph and disconnected Graph

A graph G = (V,E) is said to be connected if we can define a path from one node to
another such that movement between any two nodes is possible and direction is not
important is called a connected graph and if it does not contain at least two
connected vertices than the graph is called disconnected graph.

(B)

(A)

Figure 1.15: (A) Connected Graph (B) Disconnected Graph

Definition 1.3.13. Tree Graph

An undirected acyclic graph is a tree if we choose a node as root node and the
other nodes are oriented by each edge away from root node.

Figure1.16:ATreeGraph

1.4 Terminologies of Graphs

there are some terminologies are described over there:

Definition 1.4.1. Vertex

A vertex, nodes or points are the positions where edges, lines or curves meet to

form there terminal points in the graph.

 13

Definition 1.4.2. Edge

An edge, either directed or undirected is a link or line segment that connect one

node to itself for a loop or cycle and two different nodes to form a connection

between them.

Vertices

Edges

Figure 1.17: (A) Vertices (B) Edges

Definition 1.4.3. End Vertices

An edge must start from a vertex and it will must end to itself or other vertex,

these points are called end vertices of that edge.

Figure 1.18: End Vertices

Definition 1.4.4. Order of Graph

The order of graph G = (V,E) is the number of vertices V (G) in that graph and

mathematically |V | represents the order of graph.

Definition 1.4.5. Size of Graph

The size of graph G = (V,E) is the number of edges E(G) in that graph and
 14

mathematically |E| represents the size of graph.

Definition 1.4.6. Degree of Vertex and Degree of Graph

The degree of a vertex V (G) of a graph G = (V,E) denoted by deg(v) is the number

of edges connected to that vertex and a loop edge of that vertex counted twice while

the sum of all degrees of vertices is called the degree of graph.

G = deg(v1) + deg(v2) + ... + deg(vn) = 2 ∗ (the number of edges of G)

Definition 1.4.7. Adjacent or Neighbors

Two vertices that are connected by edge, either directed or undirected, are called

adjacent to each other.

Definition 1.4.8. Neighborhood of v

The set of all adjacent vertices of a vertex v of a graph G = (V,E) is called

neighborhood of v, denoted by N(v).

Definition 1.4.9. Loop or Self-edge

An edge or link with just one endpoint means that point is initial also the

terminal point of that edge is called a loop or self-edge.

Figure 1.19: A Loop

Definition 1.4.10. Path and Reachable

 15

An edge by edge distance of one vertex to any other vertex in any direction in the

graph G = (V,E) is called a path and if there is a path from one vertex to another

vertex than the vertices are called reachable.

Definition 1.4.11. Symmetry and Asymmetry

If each pair of nodes or points in the graph are connected in both directions than

the graph is symmetric and if at least one pair relates to one direction than the graph

is asymmetric.

(A)

(B)

Figure 1.20: (A) Symmetry (B) Asymmetry

Definition 1.4.12. In-degree and Out-degree of the Vertex

The number of edges or links that end at vertex v is called The in-degree of a
vertex v, denoted by deg (v) and the number of edges and links that start from vertex
v is −

called The out-degree of v, denoted by deg+(v) and Note it a loop contributes 1 to

both the in-degree and the out-degree of the vertex.

1.5 Important Definitions

In this section we will discuss the definitions that are important for this project:

Definition 1.5.1. Homomorphism and Isomorphism

 16

A mapping between vertices of two graphs in which adjacent vertices maps with
adjacent vertices so that their structure remains same this mapping is called
homomorphism and if there is one-one and onto, bijection, between the
homomorphism mapping than mapping is called isomorphism.

(A)

(B)

Figure 1.21: (A) Homomorphism (B) Isomorphism

Definition 1.5.2. Union of Graphs

Two graphs G1 and G2 there union G1UG2 is the graph in which we union there
vertices and edges the resulting graph is called union of graphs.

U =

G G G UG
1 2 12

Figure 1.22: Union of Graphs

Definition 1.5.3. Sub-Graph

Let H be a subgraph of G than there exist some vertices in graph H also exist in
graph G and the edges in graph H also exist in graph G notes that adjacent vertices in
graph G remains adjacent in graph H than graph H is called sub-graph of G.

Sub-graph Graph
 17

Figure 1.23: Sub-graph

1.6 Graph Representation

There are many ways of representing the graphs, Here are some:

1: Adjacency matrix

2: Adjacency list

1.6.1 Adjacency Matrix and Adjacency List

We take a graph and represent in adjacency matrix and adjacency list.

1 7

2 3

8
4 5

Figure 1.24: A Graph

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3

2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 3 4 5

3 1 1 0 3 1 2 5 7 8
0 0 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 2 5

5 0 1 5 2 3 4 6
1 1 0 1 0 0

6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 6 5

7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 7 3 8
(B )
8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 8 3 7

(A )

Figure 1.25: (A) Adjacency Matrix (B) Adjacency List

 18

1.7 Applications of Graphs

Graphs can be used to show almost everything in this world physically in plan page
or in three-dimension. Many practical problems like computer science, social media,
travel, biology, computer chip design, statistics and geometry, etc can be represented
by graphs by its components like nodes and edges [11].

1.7.1 Examples of Applications of Graphs

Some practical examples are shown bellow:

Graph Vertex Edge

Website Webpage Links
Efforts Regions Migration path
Communications Telephones Fiber optic cable
Circuit Gate Wire
Finance Bank Transaction
Infectious Disease Person Infaction
Network Names Attributes
Molicules Atoms Bonds
Transportation Airport Airways route
Mechanical Joint Rod
Game Board position Legal move
Protein network Protein Protein-protein intraction

Figure 1.26: Graphs with vertices and edges

Chapter 2
Fixing Sets of Graphs

In this chapter we will discuss some more definitions and concepts related to fixing
sets and we also discuss some theorems related to basics of graph theory and fixing
sets. We will discuss fixing numbers of path, cycle and tree graphs. Also we will solve
some examples of fixing sets.

2.1 Introduction
For readers convenience, we recall some more definitions and concepts. If the

vertices of graph are linked together by edges either directed or undirected than

these vertices are adjacent otherwise non-adjacent. A vertex v that is connected to

the other vertex or vertices, these vertex or vertices except v is called open

neighborhood, denoted by N(v) and by including v this is called closed neighborhood,

denoted by N[v]. Structure respective mapping between vertices is called

homomorphism, its bijective mapping is called isomorphism and if isomorphism is

onto itself than it is called automorphism.

There was a problem for distinguishing vertices of graph that problem has studied
by Harary and Erwin in [13] and further studied by using two approaches. First
approach involves the concept of metric dimension/locaion number by Harary and
Melter [14]

19
 20

and Slater [17]. Secend approach involves the concept of symmetry breaking by

Albertson and Collins [2] and Harary [12].The notion of fixing set has its application

for robot programming to manipulate objects [15].

Definition 2.1.1. Fixing Set

Fixing set, denoted by F is the set of vertices when we fix it in the graph the graph

will not attain its similar structure and remove all the automorphism except the

graph with only one vertex. For any positive integer which is greater than one the

maximum fixing nodes for n vertices is n − 1, for path graph is 1 in more than two

nodes and for cyclic graph is 2 in more than three vertices or nodes, studied by

Harary and Erwin In [13].By Gibbons and Laison [6] set of vertices is fixing set if it is

a determining set.

Definition 2.1.2. Fixing Number

In [1] Erwin and Harary introduced, The number of vertices in the smallest fixing

set means the minimum cardinality of fixing set is called Fixing number, denoted by

fix(G).

2.2 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Graphs

We explain here the fixing sets and fixing numbers in different types of graphs like:

1: Fixing sets and numbers of path graphs.

2: Fixing sets and numbers of cyclic graphs.

3: Fixing sets and numbers of tree graphs.

 21

2.2.1 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Path Graphs

Some path graph are shown in figure and their fixing number and fixing sets are
shown including their general result.
1 2 1 2 3
Nodes Fixing sets
Fixing no.: 1 Fixing no.: 1
1 1
Fixing Sets:{1},{2} Fixing Sets:{1},{3}
2 2
1 2 3 4
3 2
4 4
Fixing no.: 1 5 4.
..
. ..
Fixing Sets: {1},{2},{3},{4}
1 2 3 4 5 Odd n n-1
Even n n
Fixing no.: 1
Fixing Sets: {1},{2},{4},{5}

Figure 2.1: Fixing Number and Fixing set

2.2.2 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Cyclic Graphs

Some cyclic graph are shown in figure and their fixing number and fixing sets are
shown including their general
result. Nodes Fixing sets
2 3
2 1 1
1 1
2 1
Fixing no.: 1 Fixing no.: 2 3 2
4 2
Fixing sets:{1},{2} Fixing sets:{1,2},{2,3},
5
.. 2
{1,3} . ...
2 1 3 2 1 3
Odd n 2
4 4 5
Fixing no.: 2 Fixing no.: 2 evenn select2 except
Even
For

Fixing sets:{1,2},{2,3}, Fixing sets:{1,2},{2,3}, Diametric vertices

{3,4},{1,4} {3,4},{4,5},{1,5}

Figure 2.2: Fixing Number and Fixing set

 22

2.2.3 Fixing Sets and Numbers of Tree Graphs

Some tree graph are shown in figure and their fixing number and fixing sets are
shown including their general result.
1 1
General:
2 3 2 3 we will fix node from balance
root and fixing number in-
Fixing no.: 1 crease with the number of
Fixing sets:{2},{3} 4 balance root.
1
Fixing no.:1 1
Fixing sets:{1},{2},{3},{4}
2 3 1
2 3

5 4 2 3
5 67 4
Fixing no.:1
5 6 4 Fixing no.: 2
Fixing sets:{2},{3},{4},{5}
Fixing sets:{5,7},{5,4},
Fixing no.:1 {6,7},{6,4}
Fixing sets:{5},{6}

Figure 2.3: Fixing Number and Fixing set

2.3 Other related Definitions

Definition 2.3.1. Determining Set and Determining Number
Let D ⊆ V (G) is determining set, first introduced by Boutin in [5] when we apply
a mapping on the vertices of graph, it gives the automorphism of vertices separately
and the size of smallest Determining set is Determining number, denoted by Det(G).

Definition 2.3.2. Locating set and metric dimension

Let L be a set of vertices called locating set [9], if any vertex in graph W is on

some distance from the vertices of locating set L and it can determined separately

while the number of vertices in minimum Locating set is called metric dimension.

Definition 2.3.3. Orbit of a Vertex

The orbit of a vertex u is the set O(u) ⊆ V (G) such that for every v ∈ O(u) there

exists α ∈ Γ(G) such that α(u) = v and we say that u is similar to v, denoted by u ∼ v,
 23

simply it means a vertex which is connected to other graph vertices wherever that

vertex can move so that the graph structure remain same.

Definition 2.3.4. Cartesian Product

Sabidussi was the founder of Cartesian product, defined as, Let two graphs G1 and
G2 and their Cartesian product G1 × G2 where G1 = (u,v) and G2 = (a,b) two vertices ua
and vb are adjacent iff uv ∈ E1(G) and ab ∈ E2(G)

G
1

G1 X G 2

G2

Figure 2.4: Cartesian Product

Definition 2.3.5. Composition Product or lexicographic Product

In 1914 Felix Housdraff was the founder of Composition product [19], defined as,
Let two graphs G1 and G2 and their Composition product G1[G2] where G1 = (u,v) and
G2 = (a,b) two vertices ua and vb are adjacent iff ua ∈ E1(G) or u = a and vb ∈ E2(G)

Figure 2.5: Composition Product

 24

2.4 Theorems
Theorem 2.4.1. The minimum cardinality of locating set of graph G is 1 iff G is a path
graph.

Theorem 2.4.2. The minimum cardinality of locating set of n-vertex graph G is n−1 iff

G is a complete graph.

Theorem 2.4.3. The minimum cardinality of locating set of n-vertex graph G is n−2 iff

G is a complete bipartite graph.

Theorem 2.4.4. Sum of degrees of vertices always equals to twice of number of edges
in the undirected graph.(Handshakelemma)

Theorem 2.4.5. Let G be a graph with directed edges the number of edges are equal to
the in-degree and out-degree of the vertices.

Theorem 2.4.6. Let X1 be a connected Graph and X2 be any arbitrary graph than (i) If
a ∈ O(b) for two distinct vertices a,b ∈ P(X1) than (a,i) ∈ O(b,i) ∀ i ∈ P(X2), where
(a,i),(b,i) ∈ P(X1[X2]).

(ii) If j ∈ O(i) for two distinct vertices i,j ∈ P(X2) than (a,j) ∈ O(a,i) ∀ a ∈ P(X1) in

P(X1[X2]).

Proof. (i)
we Know that For
a ∈ O(b)
The degree of vertices in X1 deg(a) = deg(b)
Also for any vertex
(a,i) ∈ P(X1[X2])
The degree of vertex deg(a,i) = degX1(a).|P(X2)| + degX2(i)
So, the degree of vertices ∀ i ∈ P(X2) in P(X1[X2]) is

deg(a,i) = deg(b,i)
suppose
(a,i) ∈ O/ (b,i)
then there exist a vertex
 25

(c,i) ∈ Ns(a,i) where 1 ≤ s ≤ e(a)

And a vertex
(d,i) ∈ Ns(b,i) where 1 ≤ s ≤ e(b) in P(X1[X1])
such that
deg(c,i) ≠ deg(d,i) where 1 ≤ s ≤ e(a)
It results that deg(c) ≠ deg(d) where c ∈ Ns(a) and d ∈ Ns(b)

which contradicts the fact that a ∈ O(b) Hance proved (a,i) ∈ O(b,i) ∀ i ∈ P(X2)

Proof. (ii)
Given that
j ∈ O(i)
so, the degree of vertices in P(X2)
deg(j) = deg(i)
then any a ∈ P(X1)

deg(a,i) = deg(a,j)
also
(a,k) is adjacent to (a,i) in P(X1[X2])
this if and only if k is adjacent to i in P(X2)
so, the degree sequence of neighborhood of (a,i) must be same as of (a,j).
For otherwise, j /∈ O(i)
Hance proved
(a,j) ∈ O(a,i)

1 .5 Examples
Here are some examples of Lexicographic Product:

2 .5.1 Example: 2.1

Let suppose two path graphs X1 and X2 in which X1 = K4, X2 = K3. Find the

composition product.
 26

Solution:

Here we note that the notation xi represents (a,1) where a ∈ X1 and 1 ∈ X2. We

will note it carefully.

Figure 2.6: Composition Product P4[P3]

The orbits of vertices are given bellow:

O((a,1)) = {(a,1),(d,1),(a,3),(d,3)}

O((a,2)) = {(a,2),(d,2)}

O((a,3)) = {(a,1),(d,1),(a,3),(d,3)}

O((d,1)) = {(a,1),(d,1),(a,3),(d,3)}

O((d,3)) = {(a,1),(d,1),(a,3),(d,3)}

O((b,1)) = {(b,1),(c,1),(b,3),(c,3)}

O((b,3)) = {(b,1),(c,1),(b,3),(c,3)} O((c,1)) =

{(b,1),(c,1),(b,3),(c,3)}
 27

O((c,3)) = {(b,1),(c,1),(b,3),(c,3)}

O((b,2)) = {(b,2),(c,2)}

O((c,2)) = {(b,2),(c,2)}

The degrees of corresponding vertices of P(X1[X2]) are:

degX1[X2]((a,1)) = degX1[X2]((a,3)) = 4

degX1[X2]((d,1)) = degX1[X2]((d,3)) = 4

degX1[X2]((b,1)) = degX1[X2]((b,3)) = 7

degX1[X2]((c,1)) = degX1[X2]((c,3)) = 7

degX1[X2]((a,2)) = degX1[X2]((d,2)) = 5

degX1[X2]((b,2)) = degX1[X2]((c,2)) = 8

Here, we notes that for a,d ∈ X1, a ∈ O(d), this notation gives us

degX1(a) = degX1(d) = 1

now, we can also see for (a,1) ∈ P(X1[X2])

degX1[X2](a,1) = degX1[X2](d,1)) = 4

Here, let suppose that

(a,1) ∈ O/(d,1)

Then,

∃ (b,1) ∈ N1(a,1)

and

(c,1) ∈ N1(d,1)

such that,
 28

degX1[X2](b,1) = degX1[X2](c,1)) = 7

If

=
degX1[X ](b,1) ̸
2 degX1[X ](c,1))
2

then it will contradict to our supposition that a ∈ O(d).

Similarly we can notice for further vertices in X2.

2.5.2 Example: 2.2

Let X1 and X2 are two graphs where X1 is connected and X2 is a disconnected graph

having two components namely and . The degree of each vertex in X1, X2 and
P(X1[X2]) is given bellow,

degX1(a) = 1 degX1(b) = 2 degX1(c) = 1 degX2(1) = 1

degX2(2) = 1 degX2(3) = 1 degX2(4) = 1

Solution:

In graph product, the notation xi means (x,i), where x ∈ X1 and i ∈ X2. Here we use

the formula for calculating the degree for each vertex in P(X1[X2]). We use this

formula over here:

degX1[X2]((x,i)) = degX1(x).|P(X2)| + degX2(i)

degX1[X2]((a,1)) = degX1(a).|P(X2)| + degX2(1) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((a,2)) =

degX1(a).|P(X2)| + degX2(2) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((a,3)) = degX1(a).|P(X2)| +

degX2(3) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((a,4)) = degX1(a).|P(X2)| + degX2(4) = 1 × 4 + 1 =

5 degX1[X2]((b,1)) = degX1(b).|P(X2)| + degX2(1) = 2 × 4 + 1 = 9 degX1[X2]((b,2)) =

 29

degX1(b).|P(X2)| + degX2(2) = 2 × 4 + 1 = 9 degX1[X2]((b,3)) = degX1(b).|P(X2)| +

degX2(3) = 2 × 4 + 1 = 9 degX1[X2]((b,4)) = degX1(b).|P(X2)| + degX2(4) = 2 × 4 + 1 =

9 degX1[X2]((c,1)) = degX1(c).|P(X2)| + degX2(1) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((c,2)) =

degX1(c).|P(X2)| + degX2(2) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((c,3)) = degX1(c).|P(X2)| +

degX2(3) = 1 × 4 + 1 = 5 degX1[X2]((c,4)) = degX1(c).|P(X2)| + degX2(4) = 1 × 4 + 1 =

5 Let F = {a1,b2,c1,a4,b3,c3} be a fixing set for P(X1[X2]) which is a minimum

fixing set. Hence the cardinality of this fixing set namely fixing number is six.

Figure 2.7: Composition Product

Fixing represented by components as bellow:

And
 30

X2(a) = {a1,a2,a3,a4}

X2(b) = {b1,b2,b3,b4}

X2(c) = {c1,c2,c3,c4}

For vertex a,

Then ) implies that F1(a) = {a1}

Similarly ) implies that F2(a) = {a4}

And then F(a) will be {a1,a4} which is a non empty set and we also notice that it is a
minimum fixing set for the class X2(a).

Similarly for b,

Then ) implies that F1(b) = {b2}

Similarly ) implies that F2(b) = {b3}

And then F(b) will be {b2,b3} which is a non empty set and a minimum fixing set for

the class X2(b).

And similarly for last c,

Then ) implies that F1(c) = {c1}

Similarly ) implies that F2(c) = {c3}

And then F(c) will be {c1,c3} which is a non empty set and a minimum fixing set for

the class X2(c).

Now we have a result that every class is fixed by the vertices of itself.
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