Lesson Proper for Week 14

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process
food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. Food is broken
down, bit by bit, until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed and the waste products are
eliminated. The digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract,
consists of a long continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are
accessory structures located in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
are major accessory organs that have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the
digestive tract.
Food undergoes three types of processes in the body:

• Digestion
• Absorption
• Elimination

Digestion and absorption occur in the digestive tract. After the nutrients are absorbed,
they are available to all cells in the body and are utilized by the body cells in metabolism. The
digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or functions.
1. Ingestion. The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth. This
process, called ingestion, has to take place before anything else can happen.
2. Mechanical Digestion. The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into
smaller particles that can be acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which
begins in the mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions
in the stomach.
3. Chemical Digestion. The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are
transformed by chemical digestion into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by
the cells. Chemical digestion, through a process called hydrolysis, uses water and digestive
enzymes to break down the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed up the hydrolysis
process, which is otherwise very slow.
4. Movements. After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the
pharynx, then into the esophagus. This movement is deglutition, or swallowing. Mixing
movements occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle contraction. These repetitive
contractions usually occur in small segments of the digestive tract and mix the food particles with
enzymes and other fluids. The movements that propel the food particles through the digestive
tract are called peristalsis.
These are rhythmic waves of contractions that move the food particles through the various regions
in which mechanical and chemical digestion takes place.
5. Absorption. The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell
membranes of the lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. This process is
called absorption.
6. Elimination. The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated
from the body. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, is
defecation or elimination.

How does the digestive system work?

Each part of the digestive system helps to move food and liquid through GI tract, break
food and liquid into smaller parts, or both. Once foods are broken into small enough parts, the
body can absorb and move the nutrients to where they are needed. The large intestine absorbs
water, and the waste products of digestion become stool. Nerves and hormones help control the
digestive process.
The Digestive Process

Food move through GI tract

Food moves through GI tract by a process called peristalsis. The large, hollow organs of
the GI tract contain a layer of muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement pushes
food and liquid through the GI tract and mixes the contents within each organ. The muscle behind
the food contracts and squeezes the food forward, while the muscle in front of the food relaxes to
allow the food to move.

The digestive process starts when you put food in your mouth

Mouth. Food starts to move through GI tract when we eat. When we swallow, the tongue pushes
the food into the throat. A small flap of tissue, called the epiglottis, folds over windpipe to prevent
choking and the food passes into esophagus.
Esophagus. Once we begin swallowing, the process becomes automatic. Your brain signals the
muscles of the esophagus and peristalsis begins.
Lower esophageal sphincter. When food reaches the end of the esophagus, a ringlike muscle—
called the lower esophageal sphincter —relaxes and lets food pass into stomach. This
sphincter usually stays closed to keep what’s in your stomach from flowing back into esophagus.
Stomach. After food enters your stomach, the stomach muscles mix the food and liquid with
digestive juices. The stomach slowly empties its contents, called chyme, into small intestine.
Small intestine. The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, and intestine, and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of the
small intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into the bloodstream. As peristalsis
continues, the waste products of the digestive process move into the large intestine.
Large intestine. Waste products from the digestive process include undigested parts of food,
fluid, and older cells from the lining of your GI tract. The large intestine absorbs water and changes
the waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool into rectum.
Rectum. The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it pushes stool out of
your anus during a bowel movement.

Digestive system break food into small parts body can use
As food moves through your GI tract, your digestive organs break the food into smaller
parts using:

• motion, such as chewing, squeezing, and mixing

• digestive juices, such as stomach acid, bile, and enzymes

Mouth. The digestive process starts in mouth when we chew. The salivary glands make saliva, a
digestive juice, which moistens food so it moves more easily through esophagus into stomach.
Saliva also has an enzyme that begins to break down starches in food.
Esophagus. After we swallow, peristalsis pushes the food down esophagus into stomach.
Stomach. Glands in stomach lining make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food.
Muscles of your stomach mix the food with these digestive juices.
Pancreas. Pancreas makes a digestive juice that has enzymes that break down carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins. The pancreas delivers the digestive juice to the small intestine through small
tubes called ducts.
Liver. Liver makes a digestive juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins. Bile ducts
carry bile from your liver to your gallbladder for storage, or to the small intestine for use.
Gallbladder. Gallbladder stores bile between meals. When we eat, gallbladder squeezes bile
through the bile ducts into your small intestine.
Small intestine. Small intestine makes digestive juice, which mixes with bile and pancreatic juice
to complete the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Bacteria in small intestine make
some of the enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates. Small intestine moves water from your
bloodstream into your GI tract to help break down food. Small intestine also absorbs water with
other nutrients.
Large intestine. In your large intestine, more water moves from your GI tract into your
bloodstream. Bacteria in your large intestine help break down remaining nutrients and make
vitamin K. Waste products of digestion, including parts of food that are still too large, become
stool.
What happens to the digested food?
The small intestine absorbs most of the nutrients in your food, and your circulatory system
passes them on to other parts of your body to store or use. Special cells help absorbed nutrients
cross the intestinal lining into your bloodstream. Your blood carries simple sugars, amino acids,
glycerol, and some vitamins and salts to the liver. Your liver stores, processes, and delivers
nutrients to the rest of your body when needed.
The lymph system, a network of vessels that carry white blood cells and a fluid called
lymph throughout your body to fight infection, absorbs fatty acids and vitamins. Your body uses
sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol to build substances you need for energy, growth,
and cell repair.

URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product. The
organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.

The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken
the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.
The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and
to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced when
foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the
body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and
other wastes in the form of urine.
Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure regulation and the
production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Kidneys
also regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids.
Kidney and urinary system parts and their functions

• Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the
middle of the back. Their function is to:
o Remove waste products and drugs from the body
o Balance the body's fluids
o Release hormones to regulate blood pressure
o Control production of red blood cells

• The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons.
Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus,
and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste
substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal
tubules of the kidney.
 • Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles
in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the
kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop.
About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder
from the ureters.
• Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held
in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The
bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine
through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine
for two to five hours.

Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any irregularities in
the bladder. These are:

• Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
• Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone
• Posterior wall: back wall
• Dome: roof of the bladder
• Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by
closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
• Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty
the bladder.
• Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the
brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the
urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.