1

Basics ofControl Systems

1.1 Background
In recent years, concept of automatic control has
achieved a very important
position in advancement of modern science. Automatic
control systems have played an
important role in the advancement and improvement of engineering skills.

Practically, every activity in our day to day life is influenced by some sort of
control system. Concept of control systems also plays an important role in the
working of space vehicles, satellites, guided missiles etc.Such control systems are now
integral part of the modern industrialization, industrial processes and home
appliances. Control systems are found in number of practical applications like

computerised control systems, transportation systems, power systems, temperature

limiting systems, robotics etc.

Hence for an engineer it is absolutely necessary to get familiar with the analysis

and designing methods of such control systems.

This chapter includes the concept of system and control system. Then it gives the
classification of control systems.It includes the discussion of various types of control

systems supported with number of real time applications.

1.2 Definitions

To understand the meaning of the word control system, first we will define the
word system and then we define the word system.

: will try to control

System A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical components

which act together as an entire unit to achieve certain objective.

Every physical object is actually a system. A classroom is a good example of

blackboard, fans,
physical system. A room along with the combination of benches,
lighting arrangement etc. can be called a classroom which acts as an elementary
system.
Another example of a system is alamp. A lamp made up of glass, filament is a
a
physical system. Similarly a kite made up of paper and sticks is an example of
physical system.
ecological, biological etc.
Similarly system can be of any type i.e. physical,

To control means to regulate, to direct or to comnand. Hence a control

Control system :
elements connected in such a manner so as to
system is an arrangement of different physical
regulate, direct or command itself or some
other system.

(1)
 Basics f Controt A
Control Engineering (v"Mech. - VTU)
Syatema
the
For example if in
classrom, professor is
a dellvering his lecture,
the combinatem
iroct et command
becomes a ntol system as, he trie to regulate, studentin
knowledge trr the
order to ahieve the objvtive which is to input gooxl
the entire 9ystemstudens
Similary it lamp is switchecd ON or OFF using a switch, Can he

system and a control nystem ia

callai a ntol system. The concept of physical
shrn
in the Fi.l.l and Fig.1.2.
Larnp

Switch

Supply
Lamp
Fig. 1.2 Control system
Fig. 1.1 Physical system
string ana
he tries to control it with the help of
When a child plays with the kite.
system.
entire system can be considered as a control
interconnection of the
in the broadest sense, an
In short, a control system is kind of controlline
a desired function, involving some
physical components to provide
action in it.
is to be controlled or regulated is called
the plant
:
Plánt The portion of a system which
or theProcess.
the system itself or external
to the system wohich controls the

Controller : The element of

called controller.
plant or the process is
it as an input.
be an excitation and system accepts
For each system, there must necessary to define the
of system for such input, itis
And for analyzing the behaviour
outpyt of a system.
a system from an
Input :It is an applied signal or an
produce a
excitation

specified
signal applied to
output.
control

order to
external energy source in

Qutput : It is the particular signal of interest

inputisapplied to it.
or the actual response obtained from &

control system when the value of

Disturbances :
adversely affect
which tends to
Disturbance is a signal
system itself, it is

disturbance
such is generated within the
a
If
theoutput of a system. the system acting as
disturbance. The disturbance generated outside
called an internal output
input, affecting the
to the system in addition to its normal
an extra input
disturbance.
adversely is called an external
or output. From the information
have more than one input
Control systems may all the inputs and outputs of the

to well define
the system, it is possible
regarding
systems.
 Control Engineerlng Mech, VIU3 Basice ol Control Systeme

The input varlable is generally

referredas the Reference Input Reference Controlled
PLANT output
and Output is generally referred as input

the Controlled
output.
Flg. 1.3

Cause and effect relationship between input and output for a plant can be shown
as in the Fig. 1.3.

1.3 Classification of Control Systems

Broadly control systems can be classified as,
1) Natural Control Systems
are of natural type.
:The biological systems, systems inside human being

Ex:1 : The perspiration system inside the human being is a good example of
natural control system. This system activates the secretion glands, secreating sweat
and regulates the temperature of human body.
2) Manmade
day life
Control Systems : we are using in our day to
The various systems,
are designed and manufactured by human beings. Such systems like
vehicles, switches,various controllers etc. are called manmade control systems.
Ex.2 : An automobile system with gears, accelerator, braking system is a good
example of manmade control system.
3) Combinational Control Systems : Combinational control system one, having
is

combination of natural and manmade together: i.e. driver driving a vehicle. In

such system, for successful operation of the system, it is necessary that natural
systems of driver alongwith systems in vehicles which are manmade must be
active.

But for the engineering analysis, control systems can be classified in many
different ways. Some of the classifications are given below.
4) Time Varying and Time - Invariant Systems :Time varying control systems are
those in which parameters of the systems are varying with time. It
not is

dependent on whether input and output are functions of time or not. For
example, space vehicle whose mass decreases with time, as it leaves carth. The
mass is a parameter of space vehicle system. Similarly in case of a rocket,
aerodynamic damping can change with time as the air density changes with the
altitude. As against this if even though the inputs and outputs are functions
of time but the parameters of system are independent of time, which are not
varying with time and are constants, then system is said to be time invariant
system. Different electrical networks consisting of the elements as resistances,

inductances and capacitances are time invariant systems as the values of the
elements of such system are constant and not the functions of time. The

complexity of the control system design increases considerably if the control

system is of the time varying type. This classification is shown in the Fig.1.4.
 Control Engineering (V"Mech.- VTU) Basics of Cotrol Systems

Input Parameters Parameters

|Output Input Output
of system are of system
f() constants and not are functions
f(t)
functions of time of time

(a) Time invariant system (b)Time variant system

Fig. 1.4
5) Linear and Nonlinear Systems : A control system is said to be linear if it

satisfies following properties.

a) The principle of superposition is applicable to the system. This means the

response to several inputs can be obtained by considering one input at a
time and then algebraically adding the individual results.

Mathematically principle of superposition isexpressed by two properties,

i) Additive property which says that for x andy belonging to the domain of
the function f then we have,
f(x +y) = f(x) + f(y)
ii) Homogeneous property which says that for any x belonging the domain of
the function f and for any scalarconstant a we have,
f (a x) =af (x)

b) The differential equation describing the system is linear having its

coefficients as constants.

c) Practically the output i.e. response varies linearly with the input ie. forcing

function for linear systems.

time example
Real :
A resistive network shown in the Fig. 1.5 .(a) is a linear
system. The Fig. 1.5 (b) shows the linear relationship existing between input and
output.

R4

Linear
Vin
relationship

Vin
Vin =Input, =Output
I

(a) Línear system (b) Response of system

Fig. 1.5 Example of linear system

Contro! Engineortng 'Mech. - VTU)
Baslcs of Control Systeme
A control system is said to be nonlinear, if,
a. Itdoes not satisfy the principle of
superposition.
b. The equations describing the system are
nonlinear in nature.
=
The function f (x) x is nonlinear
because

f(*1 + x2) (x1 +x) (x1) +()

and *a
f(a x) = (a x) x where a =constant
The equations of nonlinear system involves such nonlinear functions.
c The output does not vary linearly for nonlinear systems.

The various nonlinearities practically present in the system are shown in the
(b)and (c).
Fig. 1.6 (a),

Output Output Output

+Input

7
Input -Input

(a) Saturation (b) Dead zone

7(c)Exponential or
square law

Fig. 1.6 Nonlinearities

The saturation means input increases beyond certain limit, the output remains
if

constant ie. it does not remain linear. The flux and current relation i.e. B-H curve
shows saturation in practice. In some big valves, though force increases upto certain
for certain time which is
value, the valve does not operate. So there is no response
called dead zone.
diode
The voltage-current equation of a diode is exponential and nonlinear thus
is shown in the Fig. 1.7.
ircuit is an example of nonlinear system. This

Diode Exponential
rise

-Vin

(b) Response
(a) System

Fig. 1.7 Example of nonlinear system

 Control Engineering (v"Mech. - VTU) 6 Basics of Control
Systeme

It can be seen that as long as increases upto certain value, current remaina
Vin
almost zero. This is a dead Zone and thereafter voltage-current are
exponentially
related to each other which is a nonlinear function.

Key Point : In practice it is difficult to find perfectly linear system. Most of the physical

systems are nonlinear to certain extent.

But if the presence ofcertain

nonlinearity is negligible and not afecting the system

response badly, keeping response within its linear limits then the nonlinearity can be:

neglected and for practical purpose the system can be treated to be linear.

Procedures for finding the solutionsof nonlinear system problems are complicated

and time consuming. Because of this difficulty most of the nonlinear systems are

treated as linear systems for the limited range of operation with some assumptions
and approximations. The number of linear methods,then can be applied for analysis
of such linear systems.

6) Continuous Time and Discrete Time Control Systems In a continuous time :

control system system variables are the functions of.a continuous time
all

variable 't. The speed control of a d.c. motor using a tachogenerator feedback is

an example of continuous data system. At any time 't they are dependent on
time. In discrete time systems one or more system variables are knoWn only
át

certain discrete intervals of time. They are not continuously dependent on the

time. Microprocessor or computer based systems use such discrete time signals.
are,
The reasons for using such signalsin digital controllers

1) Such signals are less sensitive to noise.

other chnnels is possible.

2) Time sharing of one equipment with
speed, memory, flexibility etc.
3) Advantageous from point of view of size,

The systems using such digital controllers or sampled signals are called sampled;

data systems.

Continuous time system uses the signals'as

shown in the Fig. 1.8 (a) which ar
as shown in the Fig.1.8(b).
continuous with time while discrete system uses the signals

signal

signal

+ time

(a) Continuous signal (b) Discrete signal

Fig. 1.8
Controt Engineoring Mech, - VTU) Besics of Control Sytoms

Deterministic and Stochastie Control Systems t A control system is said to be

deterministic when its response to input as well as behaviour to extermal
disturbances is predíctable and repeatable. If such response is unpredictable,
system is said to be stuchastic in nature.
Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Control Systems : Controlsystem
that can be described by ordinary differential equations is called lumped
parameter control system. For example electrical networks with different
parameters as resistance, inductance, etc. are lumped parameter systems. Control
systems that can be described by partial differential equations are called
distributed parameter control systems. For example, transmission line having its
and inductance totally distributed along it. Hence
parameters resistance
of partial
description of transmission line characteristics is always by use
differential equations. The lumped parameters are physically
separable and can

be shown to be located at a particular point while representing the system. The

not be
distributed parameters can not be physically separated and hence can
represented at a particular place.
Output
9) Single Input Single Output (SISO) and Multiple Input Multiple
and one output called
(MIMO)Systems : A system having only one input is

example a position control system has

single input single output system. For
output (actual output position). Some
only one input (desired position) and one
outputs, these are called
systems may have multiple type of inputs and multiple
multiple input multiple output systems.
is another important classification.
10) Open loop and Closed Loop Systems: This
in detail in coming sections.
The features of both these types are discussed

1.4 Open Loop System

Definition
action or input
: A
is
system
totally
which output is dependent on
in

independernt of the output

input but controlling
or changes in output of the

Loop System.
system, is called an Open
as in Fig. 1.9.
In a broad manner it can be represented

Controlled

Reference Process
Controller output c(t)
input r(t)

u=Actuating signal

Fig. 1.9
actuating
to the controller which generates the
applied
[r(t)] is Process is givmg
Relerence input which is to be controlled.
to control the process
signal(u) required output c(t).
desired conirolled
out the necesbary
 Control Engineering (v"Mech. VTU) Basics of Control
Systems

1.4.1 Advantages

The advantages of open loop control system are,

1) Such systems are simple in construction.

2) Very much convenient when output is difficult to measure.

3) Such systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
4) Generally these are not troubled with the problems of stability.
5) Such systems are simple to design and hence economical.
1.4.2 Disadvantages

The disadvantages of open loop control system are,

1) Such systems are inaccurateand unreliable because accuracy of such systems are

totally dependent on the accurate precalibration of the controller.

2) Such systems give inaccurate results if there are variations in the external
environment i.e. such systems cannot sense environmental changes.

3) Similarly they cannot sense internal disturbances in the system, after the
controller stage.

4) To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration of the controller is necessary,

time to time.

To overcome all the above disadvantages, generally in practice closed loop systems

are used.
an switch. This is open loop
The good example of an open loop system is electric

because output is light and switch is controller of lamp. Any change in light has no

effect on the ON-OFF position of the switch,i.e.

its controlling action.

of cleanliness or
Similarly automatic washing machine. Here output is degree
the controlling action or will not
clothes. But any change in this output will not affect
which is to used
decide the operation time or will not decide the amount of detergent
Some other examples are traffic signal, automatic toaster system etc.

1.4.3 Real Time Applications of an Open Loop System

The various illustrations of an open loop system are discussed below,

1.4.3.1 Sprinkler Used to Water a Lawn

water a given area by opening the water valve
atd
The system is adjusted to
is considered satisfactory, the syste"
observing the resulting pattern. When the pattern
is made.
is "calibrated" and no further valve adjustment

1.4.3.2 Stepper Motor Positioning System

The mnotor contrll
The actual position in such system is usually not monitored.
the output to a previOU
commands a certain number of steps by the motor to drive
determined location.
 Control Engineering (v'Mech. VTU) Basics of Control Systems

1.4.3.3 Automatic Toaster System

In this system, the quality depends upon the time for which the toast is
of toast

heated. Depending on the time setting, bread is simply heated in this system. The
toast quality is to be judged by the user and has no effect on the inputs.

Power input

Desired Actual
Relay or Heating process
Controller of bread toast
time

Controller Process

Fig. 1.10
1.4.3.4 Traffic Light Controller

A traffic flow control system used on roads

is time dependent. The traffic on the

road becomes mobile or stationarydepending on the duration and sequence of lamp.

glow. The sequence and duration are controlled by relays which are predetermined
and not dependent on the rush on the road.

Power

Desired time Actual

Relays to
Lights traffic
Control sequence
control

Fig. 1.11

1.4.3.5 Automatic Door Opening and Closing System

In this system, photo sensitive devices are used. When a person interrupts a light,
time. When
photo device generates actuating signal which opens the door for specific
the door. The
person passes through the door, light becomes continuous
closing

has nothing to do with the

opening and closing of the door is the output which
inputs, hence an open loop system.
server, electric theatre lamp
The room heater, fan regulator, automatic coffee lift,

dimmer, automatic dryer are another examples of open loop system.

1.5 Closed Loop System

Definition :A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on

the output or changes in output is called closed loop system.

the output, such system uses the feedback

To have dependence of input on
property.
Feedback :Feedback is a property of the system by which it permits the output to be
on which the appropriate
compared with the reference input to generate the error signal based

controlling action can be decided.

 Control Engineering (v"Mech. - VTU) 10 Basics of
Control
Systems
In stuch system, output or part of the output is fedback to the input
omparison with the reference input applied to it.

Closed loop system can be represented as shown in the Fig. 1.12.

O Forward path

r(t) e(t) m(t) c(t)

Command Reference Process to be Controlled
Controller
input transducer Controlled output

Reference
input

b(t)

Feedback
element

Feedback path

Fig. 1.12 Representationof closed loop control system

The various sigrnals are,

r(t) =Reference input e(t) = Error signal

c(t) =Controlled output m(t) = Manipulated signal b(t) = Feedback signal

Itis not possible in all the systenms that available signal can be applied as input to

the system. Depending upon nature of controller and plant it is required to reduce

it
or amplify it or to change its nature i.e. making it discrete from continuous type of
signal etc. This changed input as per requirement is called reference input which is to

be generated by using reference transducer. The main excitation to the system is called
its command input which is then applied to the reference transducer to generate

reference input.

Practically many electronic integrated circuits work on the

d.c. voltage range of 5

to 10 V. The supply available is230 V a.c. Hence the reference input voltage in the
range of 5 to 10V d.c. is obtained from the command input 230 V a.c. and proper
rectifying unit.

The part of output, which is to be decided by feedback element is fed back to the
reference input. The signal which is output of feedback element is called 'feedback
signal' b(t).

It is then compared with the reference input giving error signal e(t) = r(t) b()
When feedback sign is positive, systems are called positive feedback systens and
if it isnegative systems are called negative feedback systems.

This error signal is then modified by controller and decides the proportionad
manipulated signal for the process to be controlled.

This manipulation is such that error will approach to zero. This signal the

actuates the actual system and produces an output. As output is controlled one, hene
called controlled output c().
 Control Engineering'Mech, - VTU) 11 Basics ot Control Systems

1.6.1 Advantages
The advantagcs of closed loop system are,
Acuracy of such system is always very high because controller modifies and
manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the system will be zero.
2) Such system senses environmental changes, as well as internal disturbancesand
accordingly modifies the error.

3) In such system, there is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions.

4) Bandwidth of such system ie. operating frequency zone for such system is very
high.
1.5.2 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of closed loop system are,
from design point of view
1) Such systems are complicated and time consuming
and hence costlier.
2 Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error
without
time to time. Tendency to
bound in the system. Hence
overcorrect the error may cause oscillations
problems of instability due
system has to be designed taking into consideration must be taken care of while
and
to feedback. The stability problems are severe
designing the system.

Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System

1.5.3
1.5.3.1 Human Being reach for a book on the
best example is human being. Ifa person wants to
The
in the Fig. 1.13.
table, closed loop
system can be represented as
eyes, compares
as the reference. Feedback signal from
Position of the book is given Error signal is given to brain.
with reference position.
the actual position of hands This process continues till
this error and gives signal to the hands.
Brain manipulates
get achieved appropriately.
the position of thehands
Desired
Input Hands
Brain position
Reference of the hands
position
of book

Eyes

Fig. 1.13 Human being

Home Heating System temperature

1.5.3.2 a valve. The actual
is operated by
heating system temperature. The
Inthis system, the and compared with the desired
sensor to change the
temperature
is sensed by a thermal the valve mechanism
the two, actuates
between
difference

as per the requirement.

 Basics of
12
Control Engineering (v"Mech. - VTU) control
3yt
Desired Heating House
Valve system ternperature
temperature

Temperature
sensor

Fig. 1.14 Domestic heating system

1.5.3.3 Ship Stabilization System

Ship stabilisation system

Ship

Sea water
level

Fins

Rollposition

Fig. 1.15 Ship stabilization system

In this system a roll sensor is used as a feedback elemernt. The desired roll postia
is selected as 0, while actual roll position is which is compared with 0,to genera:
controlling signal. This activates fin actuator in proper way to stabilize the ship.

Desired roll Actual controlled roll

Fin
Ship
actuator

Roll

sensor

Fig. 1.16

1.5.3.4 Manual Speed Control System

pee
A locomotive operator driving a train is a good example of a m.anual
limts
control system. The objective is to maintain the speed equal to the speed
The entire system is shown in the block diagram in the Fig. 1.17.
 Control Engineering (Mech, -VTU) 13 Baslcs of Control Systems

Brain Hands
Speed Control Actual
Vehicle
Actuator
limit action mechanism Speed

Sensor

Eyes

Fig. 1.17

J6.3.5 D.C Motor Speed Control

Comparator
Shaft

Refer Tachometer
coupling

Potentiometer

Amp Load

Vin
0000

O For
speed
feedback

Fieldcurrent Tachometer
constant

Fig. 1.18 Speed controlsystem

The D.C. shunt motor used where field current is kept constantand armature
is

voltage is changed the desired speed. The feedback is taken by speed

to obtain
tachometer. This generates voltage proportional to speed which is compared with
voltage required to the desired speed. This difference is used to change the input to
controller which cumulatively changes the speed of the motor as required.

Error
Amplifier Armature Load
Actual
Desired
speed
speed

Tachometer

Fig. 1.19
 Control Engineering (v" 14 Basics of Controt
Mech. - VTU)
Systems
1.5.3.6 Temperature Control System
The ainm is to nmaintain hot water is
temperature constant. Water
coming wit,
onstant flow rate. Steam is coming from a valve. Pressure thermometer 'P is
userd as
a foedback clement which sends a signal for comparison with the set point. This
error
actuates the valve which controls the rate of flow of steam, eventually
controlling the
temperature of the water.

Set
point Comparator Water inlet

Valve.

Output valve
Steam
flow
Hot water

Fig. 1.20 Temperature controlsystem

Desired Steam Process

Actual
Valve
temperature flow temperature

Pressure
thermometer

Fig. 1.21

1.5.3.7 Missile Launching System

This is sophisticated example of military applications of feedback control. The

by a radar which continuously tracks the path of the

enemy plane is sighted
aeroplane. The launch computer calculates the firing angle in terms of launch
command, which when amplified drives the launcher. The launcher angular position is

when error betwen

the feedback to the launch computer and the missile is triggered
zero. The system is shown m
the command signal and missile firing angle becomes
the Fig. 1.22.
1.5.3.8 Voltage Stabilizer
single phase appliances must be constant
anu
Supply voltage required for various is a device which
stabilizer
high fluctuations are generally not permitted. Voltage
accepts variable voltage and outputs a fixed voltage.
 15 Systoms
control Engneering (vMech. VTu) Baslce of Control

Fight path

Lead angle

Actual
Tracking
position
control

Launch
computer
Feedback
Launcher
Launch
command s.
Power
amplifier

Fig. 1.22 Missile

launching system
Principle of such stabilizer based on controlling is number of secondary turns as
The. actual output voltage
per requirement to increase or decrease the output voltage.
is sensed by a transformer and potential divider arrangement.
The reference voltage is
actual output is compared with
selected proportional to the desired output level. The
is inputted to the controller. The controller takes
this to generate error which in turn

proper decision to increase or decrease the number of

turns so as to. adjust the
the
shown in the Fig. 1.23.
output voltage. The scheme is

-oB

input ANormal
0000r
To load
Down
constanit voltage

Controlled signal

Controller Error
and
relays

Reference lsolation transformer

voltage

Fig. 1.23Voltage stabilizer

 Control Engineertng vMech, VIU) 1 Besics of Contror
Systet
The thet
amples closed loop system are machine trl pitin
of

iiing nf radio and optical tclesopes, uto pilots for aircrafts, inertial trmttr
s\sm, Autunatie clotric iron. railway reservation status display. sunserkesidana
s1shrm, watrr level
controllers, temperature control system. So in closed lp
nthl sstems cause and cffect relationship between input and output exists feehar
1.6 Cómparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System

Open Loop Closed Loop

1) Any change in output has no 1) Changes in output, affects the input
effect on the input i.e. which is possible by use of feedback
feedback
does not exsts.
2) Output measurementis not 2) Output measurementis necessary.
required for operation of system.
3) Feedback element is absent. 3) Feedback element is present.

4) Eror detector is absent. 4) Error detector is necessary.

5) It is inaccurate and unreliable. 5) Highly accurate and reliable.

6) Highly sensitive Less sensitive the disturbances

to the 6) to
disturbances.
7) Highly sensitiveto the 7) Less sensitive to the environmental
environmental changes. changes.
8) Bandwidth is small. 8) Bandwidth is large.

9 Simple to construct and cheap. 9) Complicated to design and hence

costly.

10) Generally are stable in nature. 10) Stability is the major consideration

while designing
11) Highly affected by nonlinearities. 11) Reduced effect of nonlinearities.

1.7 Feedback and Feed Forward System

In the control systems considered uptill now, it
is considered that the disturban
has affected the output adversely. Such an output is
measured and compared with t
reference input to generate an error. This error is fed to the
controller which
successively operating the system to correct the output.
Thus such systems in which the effect of the disturbance must show up in t
error before the controller can take proper corrective action are called feedbac
systems.

If the disturbance is measurable, then the signal can be added to the controle

input to modify the

actuating signal. Thus, a corrective action is initiated withe
waiting for the of the disturbance to show up in the output ie. cumulativel
effect
the error. Thus the undesirable effects of measurable disturbances by approinater
compensating for them before they affect the output. This is much more advantage
as in normal feedback system the corrective action starts only after the output r
been affected. Such systems in which such corrective action is taken belur

disturbances affect the output are called feed forward system.

 Contirol
Erngineering (vMech,- VTU) 17 Control Systemo
Basics of

A block diagram with feed forward concept

is shown in the Fig. 1.24.

Feed forward Dlsturbance

block

Reference
input
Controller Output
Actuator Process

Fig. 1.24
The two difficulties associated with feed forward
system are,
i) In some systems, the disturbance may not be measurable.
ii) The feedforward compensation is an open loop technique
function is not
and if actuator transfer
known accurately,then such compensation cannot be
achieved.
1.7.1 Real Time Application of Feed Forward
System
In a particular process control
industry, it is necessary to maintain the
of a melted metal constant before giving it temperature
to the next process. For this a
temperature control feedback system is used as general
shown in the Fig. 1.25.

Valve Controller
Steam
Storage
tank Temperature
sensor

Feedback

Constant
Inlet

Outlet temperature
required
Heat
exchange

Fig. 1.25 Feedback system for temperature

control
Practically if the rate of flow of metal from
tank to heat exchanger gets disturbed,
due to change in level then the temperature
gets affected. But it takes a long time to
see its effect at the output to take the corrective action.

Key point :In feedback system, the corrective action can not be taken unless and untill
output gets disturbed.

Due to the time lag, it is not possible to keep the

within limits. output temperature constant
Control Engineering_(vMech, 18 Beolco ot Controt
VTU)
yte
Controller
Valve
Feedback
Steam
Storage signal

tank Temperature
sensor

Feed forward
signal

Constant
Inlet
temperature
Outlet

Flow meter

(a) Feed forward system

Disturbance
Flow
(change in
meter
flow rate)

Feed forward

Reference
input
Heat
Controller Value Constant
exchanger
temperature

Temperature
sensor

Feedback

(b) Block diagram

Fig. 1.26 Practical example of feedforward system

In such a case, feedforward system is used.
"The inlet flow rate is measured w:
the flowmeter. Immediately when there is a
change in rate of flow, it is indicated
the controller through flowmeter before it disturbs the output. The
controller takes
corrective action inadvance by adjusting the steam flow.
Thus the output temperat=
gets maintained constant within the limits.

Key point :The feedforward compensation, compensates the effect of disturbance betre
actually disturbs the output.

The system is shown in the Fig. 1.26 (a) while its block diagram representaton
shown in the Fig. 1.26 (b).
The feedforward minimizes the transient error due to measurable disturbare

While feedback compensates for unmeasurable disturbances and othereffects Ih

is advisable to incorporate both feedback and feedforward schernes in a systenm

 control Engineering (v"Mech. - VTU) 19 Systems
Basics of Control

1.8 Servomechanisms
Definition : It is a feedback control system in which the controlled
variable or the output
is a mechanical position orits time derivatives such as
velocity or acceleration.
A simple example of servomechanism is a position control system. Consider a
load which requires a constant position in its
application. The position is sensed and
converted to voltage using feedback
potentiometer. It is compared with input
potentiometer voltage to gernerate error signal. This is amplified
and given to the
controller. The controller in turn controls the voltage given
to motor, dúe to which it
changes its position.

The scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.27.

Fieldcurrent
Constant

Error
Amp.
voltage
Shaft

Gears
Generator Motor

Load

Reference Actual
position position

input
Feedback
potentiorneter
potentiometer

Fig. 1.27 Position control system

Few other examples of servomechanisms are,
1)Power steering apparatus for an automobile.
2) Machine toolposition control.
3) Missile launchers.

4) Roll stabilization of ships.

 Baslcs of
Control Engineering Mech. - VTU) 20 Control
ystems

1.9 Regulating Systems (Regulators)

Definition
ut, the output
:It
is
is a fecdback
kept constant at
control system in which for
its desired Dalue.
a preset value of
the
referenc

In such long periods. Most of

systems reference input remains constant for the
times the reference input or constant or slowly
the desired output is either
with time. In a value of the controlled outputs is more varying
regulator, the desired or les

hxed. Similarly the reference input is also fixed and set point. Thus t
called
regulator maintains a constant output for a fixed reference input. The problems due
t.
disturbances are mainly
rectified by the regulator. A simple example of such
regulator
system is servostabilizer. We have seen earlier that in voltage stabilizer
position of tar
on secondary is
adjusted by using relay controls. But instead of fixed tap, the entir.
secondary can be smoothly tapped using a servomotor drive. The servomotor drive
the shaft and controls
the position of tap on secondary as per the controller signal.
Due to the fluctuations in the main input if the load voltage changes, such effects an
rectified by the regulator to keep load voltage constant.

The actual scheme is shown in the Fig. 1.28, while its block diagram representatior
is shown in the Fig. 1.29.

Controlled
Main Tap Servo signal
input motor

Shaft
N

To load
stabilised voltage

Feedback
Amplifier

feedback Error

Controller
r0000
Reference
input
Isolation
transformer

Fig. 1.28 Regulating system

 control Engincering (v"Mech, VTU) 21 Baslcs of Control Systems

Eror
Reference Actual
Controller Servo Secondary
voltage load voltage
motor tap

Load voltage
sensing

Fig. 1.29
Few other examples of regulating
system are,
1)Temperature regulators.

2) Frequency controllers.

3) Speed governors.

1.10 Mutivariable Control Systems

The control system in which there is only one output of the interset is called single
variable system. But in many practical applications more than one variables are
involved. A control system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs in called a
multivariablesystem.
The block diagranm representationof a multivariablecontrol system is shown
in the
Fig. 1.30. The part of the system which is required to be
controlled is called plant. The
controller provides proper controlling action
depending on the reference inputs. There
are n reference inputs r,, I In:

Control
signals
I ant
Controller or
Analog or digital System to e
Controlled

eed ac
elements

Fig. 1.30 Block diagram

of multivariable control system
There are n output variables c(t),
c2(t),...(t). The values of these variables
represent the performance of the plant.
The control signals produced by the controller
are applied to the plant. With
the help of feedback elements the closed
the plant is also possible. Due to loop control of
the feedback, the controller takes into
actual output values to decide the
account the
control signals.
 Basics of
Control Engineering (vMech. VTU)
22 Control

yema
In caxe is observed that a
of
systems, sometimes it
multivariable
to be Aingle
nsiderably aftcts more than one outputs. The system is said itpoa
having
This coupling is nothing but the
interactions or coupling. disturbances ttrmg

Nratrsstems. The interactions inherently present between inputs and

Ie cancelled by designing a decoupling controller. Thus the resulting (an
outputs

sstem Is Considered to have multivariabl.

proper number of single input singleoutput
the controller is systemsand
designed for each system. The another way is to design a
which take care of all the inherent interactions contrle
will present in the
System. multivariabl.

In multivariable linear control system, each input is independently

Only one input and
one output is
consideret
considered and the total effect on any
because of all the inputs acting outpu
simultaneously is determined by addition of
.outputs due to each input acting alone. Thus law of superposition is used to
the

multivariable linear control systems. analys,

In many practical control

systems, control is achieved by more than one input
the system may have many outputs. In chemical processes simultaneous contral and
pressure, temperature and concentration is required by commanding various innu
Air crafts and space crafts are other examples where movement is
controlled h.
various inputs. Power generators, atomic reactors and jet
engines are some of othe.
examples of multivariable systems.
Consider the block diagram of multivariable autopilot system shown in he
Fig.1.31.

Control Angular
signal position
Reference
inputs

Digital
Digital to
controller Actuator Rocket Vehicle
analog
converter

Position

feedback

Analog
to Velocity
feedback
digital

converter

Acceleration
feedback

Fig. 1.31 Multivariableautopilot system

 Control Systems
VTU) 23 Basics of

Control Engineering (v"Mech.

vehicle in response to
shown in the track of rocket
The system Fig. 1.31 keeps a
the vehicle are
of
inputs given to it. The and acceleration
position, velocity
reference takes appropriate
to the digital controller using motion sensors. The controller
fed
signal which will drive
the actuator,which will move
decision and sends a
controlling
to be observed and
which are
engine. Thus there are three output variables
is
the
hence the system
and there are corresponding reference inputs
controlled
multivariable system.

1.11 Requirements of an ldeal Control Systems BAS SSoN

purpose. To achueve the
Control systems are always designed for a specific
control system must satisfy
the following requirements.
required objective, a good

Accuracy :
good control system must be highly
A
with as little error as possible. The
accurate. It should operate
open loop systems are generally less accurate
system.
to reduce the error in the
and hence feedback is deliberately introduced to
a design so that steady state error tends
Such closed loop system requires
zero.
the design
Sensitivity : requirements often play
Sensitivity
an important role in

elements have properties

that change with
of control systems. All physical can not be
the parameters of control systems
environment and age and system e.g. the
the entire operating life of the
considered to be constant over
control system
changes with respect to time. A good
winding resistance of motor to the input
such parameter variations but sensitive
should be very insensitive to by small
It requires that, its
performance should not be affected
commands.
changes in the certain parameters of the system.
systems are subjected to external
External disturbance or noise : All the physical noise in
during operation.Brush and commutator
disturbances and noise signals; examples of noise
in electronic circuits are good
motors, thermal noise voltage of external
of antenna is a good example
while effect of wind on performance considerations
that
a good control system is
disturbance. A requirement of to noise
is insensitive
of designing so that system
should be given at the time It should be able
to the input commands.
and external disturbances but sensitive
to reduce the effects
of undesirable disturbances.
must follow reference
4 Stability :
A concept of stability means output of systeminput. However due to
output for bounded
input and must produced bounded without
possible that output tends to increase
wrong selection of parameters it is system is one
condition. A good control
bounds. This is called as unstable
which is stable in nature.
frequency response of the system.
is related to the
5/ Bandwidth: This requirement
give satisfactory output. The frequency
For the input frequency range, it should output
is its bandwidth. The
satisfactory
range for which output is satisfactory change
overshoots and it should not
means naximum possible output without
range.
with input frequency in given
 Control Engineering 24 Basics of Control
(vhMech. - VTU)

Speed
should
A :
system should have good
approach to its desired
speed. This means output of thhe
value as quickly
systetn
as possible. This is measured
Systems

in
terms of its rise time and should settled down to its
settling time. System final
value as quickly as
possible.
Oscillations :The
system should exhibits suitable
damping ie. the
controllet
output should follow the input without unduly
changes in the reference large
oscillations or overshoots.
So in general a good should be accurate, reliable, stable and
control system fast
responding, insensitive to parameter variations and disturbances but sensitive to
changes in the input.

Review Questions

1. Define the following terns

()System (ii)Control system (i)Input (iv)Output (v) Disturbance.
2. Explain how the control systems are classified

3. Define linear and nonlinear

control systens.

4. What is time variant system?Give suitable example. How it is different than tme in variant system?

5. Define open loop and closed loop system by giving suitable

examples.

6. Diferentiate betwveen open loop and closed loop systems

giving suitable examples.

7. With reference to feedback control system

define the following terms
i)Command input (i)Reference input (ii)Forward path (iv)
Feedback path

8. Explain the following terms giving

suitable example
i)Servomnechanism (ii) Regulator

9. Distinguish between feedback control system and feed forward control

system.

10. Differentiate between :

i) Linear and Nonlinear systems i)Continuous and Discrete data systems
11. Explain what is closed loop control system.

12. Write a note on multivariable control systems.

13. Explain the various requirements of agood control systems.

000
 2
Basics of Laplace Transform

2.1 Background

The various methods used to solve the engineering problems are based on e
replacement of functions of time by certain frequency dependent variables. This makes
the computation job very easy. The known example of such method is the use of
fourier series to solve certain electrical problems./

The transformation technique relating the time functions to frequency dependent

functions of a complex variable is called the Laplace transformation technique. Such
transformation is very useful in solving linear differentia equations. The transfer
'functionof a system, which is heart of the control system analysis is based on the
Laplace transform. This chapter gives the definition of Laplace transform, some
commonly used functions and Laplace transform pairs and useful properties of
Laplace and inverse Laplace transform. Some examples are also included
demonstrating the superiorityof Laplace approach over the conventional approach.

2.2- Definition of Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform is defined as below :

Let f(t) be a real function of a real variable t defined for t > 0, then

F(s) = L{f(t)} = f(t).e St dt

where F(s) is called Laplace transform of f(t). And the variable s which appears in

F(s) is frequency dependent complex variable. It is given by,

s = o +jo
where = Real part of complex variable 's'.

Imaginary part of complex variable 's'.

The time function obtained back from the Laplace transform by

f(t) is a process
called Inverse Laplace transform and denoted as Thus, L.
L' (F()] = LLO))= f(0)

The time function f() and its Laplace transform F(s) is called transform pair.

Ex. 2.1 Find the Laplace transform of e .

Sol. : f(t) =e-at

(25)
 of Laplace
of Laple00
Baslcs Transto
28
ControlEngineering (vMech, - VTU

dt Je-l .e#dt
Rs) = LIf(O JK)e-t

Jo
0

o-()
1

S+a
1
Le at = S+a
and erat

Ex. 2.2 Find the Laplace transform of sin ot and cos ot

Sol. :
Let f(t) = e

Put a = jo
f(t) = ejot
Now from Ex. 2.1, we can write,

Lejut = 1

S-jo
Rationalizingthe expression,

= 1 s+ jo S+ jo
L(eoty
(s- jo) (s+jo)
S
s2 +2 +j
+2 0

Now ejot cos ot +jsin ot

Lelot +j
s² +o
Separating real and imaginary parts we get,
L{cosot) =
$²+o2

L{sinot)
 pontrol
Engineering v Mech, - Vmu)
Basics of Laplece Trangtorm.
23 Basic Laplace
Transform Theorems
Linearity Theorem :
The Laplace
the t domaintransform is a linear
and the transformation between the
F(s) are function s defined functions defined in
Laplace in the s domain.
transforms of F(t) This means if F,(s) and
arbitrary

Lia
constants then,
jf;(t) +a 2f,(t)) =
and F,(t)
respectively and d a2 are the ,
The theorem is + a,F(s)
ajF{(s)
applicable for
If the
inverse Laplace
iü)
Laplace transform transformation too.
of f(t) is F(s), then
Lleat = F(s ta)
This is also
called
f(t)

complex translation
Replace s by s . in F(s) a
Ex. 2.3 theorem or shifting
Find the theorem.
SoL. :
Laplace transform of
eat cos t. o
Let f(t) = COS Ot
and F(s) =

Using the complex translation

Le a f(t)) = F(s +a)

Le at cosot = (s+ a)
(s+ a)² +o2
Obtained by replacing s bys+ain
F(s).
iü) If F(s) isthe Laplace transform of
f(t) then,

df(t)
L dt
= sF(s)- f(0*))

L{
dt2
= s F(s)- sf(0*)-f(0*)

L = s F() -s f(0*)- sf (0*)-f"(0*)

dt3

L
dtn
= s F() - s= f(0*)- sn-2r0*) .. fno*)

where f (0*), r"0*).....0* are the ) values of differentiation of ()ie. df(t)

dt
an-')
at t =0* which corresponds to the initial conditions.
dth-1
 Control
Engineertng V Mech, -VU) Baslco ot Loplace
Key Transtorm
point é
nalvRS
study merm
hht n thes
ontro
égortant to note that in classical

systems besed on tnansfer function approach, which we aremethode nf

and conventhonal

malvss course, all the initial going tr

ntal conditions are to be necglected. In such
wtro conditions
ystem analysis
do not conventionat
play any role. Hence above property is to be used in
without initial feedbac
conditions.
eg. i
differentialequation
of our
system is
d'ct) de(t)
+5c(t) 6r(t) then
Laplace de2 dt th.
transform of this
can be written as, equation using above property, neglecting initial
conditions
S
C(s)+ sC(s)+
iv)
5C(s) = 6 R(s)
If F(s) is the
Laplace transform
of f(t) then,

L f(t))
F(s) f (0*)
S S

LÍf(O) = F(s), (0*)..

LÍS f(H)) = F(s), f (0*),

4 ²(0*) (0*)
s3 S

which
where f (0*), (0*), -
(0*) are the values of Sf(t), ISf(t), JJJft) at t = 0*
are initial condition terms and are neglected
in conventional
analysis. control system

v) If F(s) is the Laplace

transform of f(t) then,
L{t f(t)) = [F()]
ds
This
property is called multiplicationby t.
Ex. 2.4
Sol. :
Obtain the Laplace transform of
te.
Let f(t) =e-at
and F(s) = 1
as seen earlier.
S+a
d
L{te-a = ds dss+a
1

(s+ a)?
vi) If the F(s) is the Laplace transform of (t) then the
Laplace transform of
f(t -
T) where T >0 and f(t T) 0 for t s T is, - = function

LIf(t - T)) = es F(s)