STRUCTURED QUERY

LANGUAGE (SQL)
Hands on Practical

COMPILED BY: JOSHUA GODSPOWER .C

1 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion,

fetching rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard language, but there are many different versions of the SQL
language.

What is SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing,
manipulating and retrieving data stored in a relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational
Database Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as: MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
Oracle using PL/SQL, MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format)
etc.

Why SQL?
SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages:
 Allows users to access data in the relational database management
systems.
 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

SQL Commands
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE,
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be
classified into the following groups based on their nature:
DDL - Data Definition Language
Command Description
CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.
ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.
DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.
2 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Command Description
SELECT retrieves certain records from one or more tables.
INSERT Creates a record.
UPDATE Modifies records.
DELETE Deletes records.
DCL - Data Control Language
Command Description
GRANT gives a privilege to user.
REVOKE takes back privileges granted from user.

What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis
for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management
system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.

What is a table?
The data in an RDBMS is stored in database objects which are called as tables. This
table is basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous
columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a
relational database. The following program is an example of a CUSTOMERS table:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
3 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

What is a field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the
CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about
every record in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table.
For example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following is a
single row of data or record in the CUSTOMERS table:
2. SQL ─ RDBMS Concepts
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with
a specific field in a table.
For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents
location description and would be as shown below:
+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+
What is a NULL value?
A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means
a field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value
or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been
left blank during a record creation.
4 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to
limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are
applied only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the
entire table. Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available
in SQL:
 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all the values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database
table.
 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column
satisfy certain conditions.
 INDEX: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Data Integrity
The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS:
Entity Integrity: There are no duplicate rows in a table.
Domain Integrity: Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the type,
the format, or the range of values.
Referential integrity: Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.
User-Defined Integrity: Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall into
entity, domain or referential integrity.

MySQL
MySQL is an open source SQL database, which is developed by a Swedish
company – MySQL AB. MySQL is pronounced as "my ess-que-ell," in contrast with
SQL, pronounced "sequel."
MySQL is supporting many different platforms including Microsoft Windows, the
major Linux distributions, UNIX, and Mac OS X.
5 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

MySQL has free and paid versions, depending on its usage (non-
commercial/commercial) and features. MySQL comes with a very fast, multi-
threaded, multi-user and robust SQL database server.
SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial
gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax.
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the statements
end with a semicolon (;).
The most important point to be noted here is that SQL is case insensitive, which
means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements. Whereas,
MySQL makes difference in table names. So, if you are working with MySQL, then
you need to give table names as they exist in the database.

Various Syntax in SQL

All the examples given in this tutorial have been tested with a MySQL server.
SQL SELECT Statement
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
6 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL LIKE Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns ) );
7 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL DROP TABLE Statement

DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
SQL DESC Statement
DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename)
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement
INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement
DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement
USE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement
COMMIT;
8 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL ROLLBACK Statement

ROLLBACK;

SQL Data Type

Is an attribute that specifies the type of data of any object. Each column, variable
and expression has a related data type in SQL. You can use these data types while
creating your tables. You can choose a data type for a table column based on your
requirement.
SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use which are listed below
−
Exact Numeric Data Types
 bigint  tinyint  numeric
 int  bit  money
 smallint  decimal  smallmoney
Approximate Numeric Data Types
 float
 real
5. SQL ─ Data Types
Date and Time Data Types
 datetime
 smalldatetime
 date
 time.

Character Strings Data Types

 char Maximum length of 8,000 characters
 varchar Maximum of 8,000 characters.
 varchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters.
 text Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of
2,147,483,647 characters.

What is an Operator in SQL?

An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations. These
9 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as

conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.
 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Operators used to negate conditions
SQL Arithmetic Operators
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator.
a + b will give 30
-Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand.
a - b will give -10
*Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator.
a * b will give 200
/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand.
b / a will give 2
% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand
and returns remainder.
b % a will give 0

Arithmetic Operators – Examples

Here are a few simple examples showing the usage of SQL Arithmetic Operators:
Example 1:
SQL> select 10+ 20;
Output:
+--------+
| 10+ 20 |
+--------+
| 30 |
+--------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2:
SQL> select 10 * 20;
Output:
+---------+
| 10 * 20 |
+---------+
10 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 200 |
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 3:
SQL> select 10 / 5;
Output:
+--------+
| 10 / 5 |
+--------+
| 2.0000 |
+--------+
1 row in set (0.03 sec)
Example 4:
SQL> select 12 % 5;
Output:
+---------+
| 12 % 5 |
+---------+
|2|
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SQL Comparison Operators

Assume ‘variable a’ holds 10 and ‘variable b’ holds 20, then:
Operator Description Example
= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition
becomes true.
(a = b) is not true.
!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal
then condition becomes true.
(a != b) is true.
<> Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal
then condition becomes true.
(a <> b) is true.
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
11 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

(a > b) is not true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes
then condition becomes true.
(a < b) is true.
>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a >= b) is not true.
<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a <= b) is true.
!< Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
(a !< b) is false.
!> Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.
(a !> b) is true.
Comparison Operators – Examples
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Here are some simple examples showing the usage of SQL Comparison Operators:
Example 1:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 5000;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
12 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 2000;
Output:

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 3:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY != 2000;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 4:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY <> 2000;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
13 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 5:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY >= 6500;
Output:

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

SQL Logical Operators

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Operator Description
ALL: The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value
set.
AND: The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement's WHERE clause.
ANY: The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the
list as per the condition.
BETWEEN: The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a
set of values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.
EXISTS: The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a
specified table that meets a certain criterion.
IN: The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have
been specified.
14 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

LIKE: The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using
wildcard operators.
NOT: The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which
it is used. Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.
OR: The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL
Statement’s WHERE clause.
IS NULL: The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.
UNIQUE: The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for
uniqueness (no duplicates).
Logical Operators – Examples
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Here are some simple examples showing usage of SQL Comparison Operators:
Example 1:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE >= 25 AND SALARY >= 6500;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
15 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Example 2:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE >= 25 OR SALARY >= 6500;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 3:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE IS NOT NULL;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 4:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE NAME LIKE 'Ko%';
Output:
+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
16 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+-------+-----+---------+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 5:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE IN ( 25, 27 );
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 6:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE BETWEEN 25 AND 27;
Output:
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 7:
SQL> SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);
Output:
+-----+
| AGE |
+-----+
| 32 |
| 25 |
| 23 |
| 25 |
| 27 |
17 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 22 |
| 24 |
+-----+
7 rows in set (0.02 sec)
Example 8:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE AGE > ALL (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);
Output:
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+--------+-----+-----------+---------+
1 row in set (0.02 sec)

Example 9:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE AGE > ANY (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 6500);
Output:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+---------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Expression
An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators and SQL
functions that evaluate to a value. These SQL EXPRESSIONs are like formulae and
they are written in query language. You can also use them to query the database
for a specific set of data.
Syntax
18 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows:

SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [CONDITION|EXPRESSION];
There are different types of SQL expressions, which are mentioned below:
 Boolean
 Numeric
 Date
Let us now discuss each of these in detail.
Boolean Expressions
SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data based on matching a single value.
Following is the
syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHING EXPRESSION;
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
The following table is a simple example showing the usage of various SQL Boolean
Expressions:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 10000;
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
19 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Numeric Expressions
These expressions are used to perform any mathematical operation in any query.
Following is the syntax:
SELECT numerical_expression as OPERATION_NAME
[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION] ;
Here, the numerical_expression is used for a mathematical expression or any
formula.
Following is a simple example showing the usage of SQL Numeric Expressions:
SQL> SELECT (15 + 6) AS ADDITION
+----------+
| ADDITION |
+----------+
| 21 |
+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
There are several built-in functions like avg(), sum(), count(), etc., to perform what
is known as the aggregate data calculations against a table or a specific table
column.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) AS "RECORDS" FROM CUSTOMERS;
+---------+
| RECORDS |
+---------+
|7|
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Date Expressions
Date Expressions return the current system date and time values:
SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
+---------------------+
| Current_Timestamp |
+---------------------+
| 2009-11-12 06:40:23 |
20 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Another date expression is as shown below:
SQL> SELECT GETDATE();;
+-------------------------+
| GETDATE |
+-------------------------+
| 2009-10-22 12:07:18.140 |
+-------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

CREATE DATABASE
The SQL CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.
Syntax
The basic syntax of this CREATE DATABASE statement is as follows:
CREATE DATABASE DatabaseName;
Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example
If you want to create a new database <testDB>, then the CREATE DATABASE
statement would be as shown below:
SQL> CREATE DATABASE testDB;
Make sure you have the admin privilege before creating any database. Once a
database is created, you can check it in the list of databases as follows:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
| testDB |
+--------------------+
21 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

DROP DATABASE CREATE Database

The SQL DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing database in SQL
schema.
Syntax
The basic syntax of DROP DATABASE statement is as follows:
DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;
Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example
If you want to delete an existing database <testDB>, then the DROP DATABASE
statement would be as shown below:
SQL> DROP DATABASE testDB;
NOTE: Be careful before using this operation because by deleting an existing
database would result in loss of complete information stored in the database.
Make sure you have the admin privilege before dropping any database. Once a
database is dropped, you can check it in the list of the databases as shown below:

SQL> SHOW DATABASES;

+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
9. SQL ─ DROP or DELETE Database
When you have multiple databases in your SQL Schema, then before starting your
operation, you would need to select a database where all the operations would be
performed.
22 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL USE statement

The SQL USE statement is used to select any existing database in the SQL
schema.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the USE statement is as shown below:
USE DatabaseName;
Always the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example
You can check the available databases as shown below:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Now, if you want to work with the AMROOD database, then you can execute the
following
SQL command and start working with the AMROOD database.
SQL> USE AMROOD;
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each
column's data type.

SQL CREATE TABLE

The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
23 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype, PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do.
In this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier for the
table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.
Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of
data type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with the following example.
A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE
TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. You can check the complete details
at Create Table Using another Table.
Example
The following code block is an example, which creates a CUSTOMERS table with
an ID as a primary key and NOT NULL are the constraints showing that these fields
cannot be NULL while creating records in this table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the
message displayed by the SQL server, otherwise you can use the DESC command
as follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
24 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |

| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Now, you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use
to store the required information related to customers.

SQL - Creating a Table from an Existing Table

A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE
TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. The new table has the same column
definitions. All columns or specific columns can be selected. When you will create
a new table using the existing table, the new table would be populated using the
existing values in the old table.
Syntax
The basic syntax for creating a table from another table is as follows:
CREATE TABLE NEW_TABLE_NAME AS
SELECT [ column1, column2...columnN ]
FROM EXISTING_TABLE_NAME
[ WHERE ]
Here, column1, column2... are the fields of the existing table and the same would
be used to create fields of the new table.

Example
Following is an example which would create a table SALARY using the
CUSTOMERS table and having the fields – customer ID and customer SALARY:
SQL> CREATE TABLE SALARY AS
SELECT ID, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would create a new table SALARY which will have the following records.
+----+----------+
| ID | SALARY |
+----+----------+
| 1 | 2000.00 |
| 2 | 1500.00 |
25 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 3 | 2000.00 |
| 4 | 6500.00 |
| 5 | 8500.00 |
| 6 | 4500.00 |
| 7 | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+

SQL DROP TABLE

The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all the
data, indexes, triggers, constraints and permission specifications for that table.
NOTE: You should be very careful while using this command because once a table
is deleted then all the information available in that table will also be lost forever.
Syntax
The basic syntax of this DROP TABLE statement is as follows:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example
Let us first verify the CUSTOMERS table and then we will delete it from the
database as shown below.

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
26 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

This means that the CUSTOMERS table is available in the database, so let us now
drop it as shown below.

SQL> DROP TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)
Now, if you would try the DESC command, then you will get the following error:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
ERROR 1146 (42S02): Table 'TEST.CUSTOMERS' doesn't exist
Here, TEST is the database name which we are using for our examples.

SQL INSERT INTO

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in
the database.
Syntax
There are two basic syntaxes of the INSERT INTO statement which are shown
below.
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
Here, column1, column2, column3,...columnN are the names of the columns in the
table into which you want to insert the data.
You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if you are
adding values for all the columns of the table. But make sure the order of the values
is in the same order as the columns in the table.
The SQL INSERT INTO syntax will be as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

Example
The following statements would create six records in the CUSTOMERS table.
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );
27 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

You can create a record in the CUSTOMERS table by using the second syntax as
shown below.
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS
VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );
All the above statements would produce the following records in the CUSTOMERS
table as shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Populate one table using another table

You can populate the data into a table through the select statement over another
table; provided the other table has a set of fields, which are required to populate
the first table.
Here is the syntax:
INSERT INTO first_table_name [(column1, column2, ... columnN)]
SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition];

The SQL SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which
returns this data in the form of a result table. These result tables are called result-
sets.
28 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Syntax
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement is as follows.
SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;
Here, column1, column2... are the fields of a table whose values you want to fetch.
If you want to fetch all the fields available in the field, then you can use the
following syntax.
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary
fields of the customers available in CUSTOMERS table.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS;

\
This would produce the following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
29 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
If you want to fetch all the fields of the CUSTOMERS table, then you should use
the following query.
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
This would produce the result as shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL WHERE clause

The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from
a single table or by joining with multiple tables. If the given condition is satisfied,
then only it returns a specific value from the table. You should use the WHERE
clause to filter the records and fetching only the necessary records.
The WHERE clause is not only used in the SELECT statement, but it is also used in
the UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc., which we would examine in the subsequent
chapters.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the SELECT statement with the WHERE clause is as shown
below.
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
30 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

You can specify a condition using the comparison or logical operators like >, <, =,
LIKE, NOT, etc. The following examples would make this concept clear.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code is an example which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields
from the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000;
15. SQL ─ WHERE Clause
This would produce the following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
The following query is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary
fields from the CUSTOMERS table for a customer with the name Hardik.
Here, it is important to note that all the strings should be given inside single quotes
(''). Whereas, numeric values should be given without any quote as in the above
example.
31 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE NAME = 'Hardik';

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+----------+

SQL AND & OR operators

The SQL AND & OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow
data in an SQL statement. These two operators are called as the conjunctive
operators.
These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different
operators in the same SQL statement.

The AND Operator

The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement's
WHERE clause.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the AND operator with a WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];

You can combine N number of conditions using the AND operator. For an action
to be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or a query, all
conditions separated by the AND must be TRUE.

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
32 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
16. SQL ─ AND & OR Conjunctive Operators
Following is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields from
the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 and the age is less
than 25 years.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;

This would produce the following result:

+----+-------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+-------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+----------+
The OR Operator
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the OR operator with a WHERE clause is as follows:

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]
You can combine N number of conditions using the OR operator. For an action to
be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, the only any
ONE of the conditions separated by the OR must be TRUE.
33 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code block has a query, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary
fields from the CUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 OR the
age is less than 25 years.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table. You can
use the WHERE clause with the UPDATE query to update the selected rows,
otherwise all the rows would be affected.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the UPDATE query with a WHERE clause is as follows:
34 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using the AND or the OR operators.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following query will update the ADDRESS for a customer whose ID number is
6 in the table.
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;
Now, the CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
35 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

If you want to modify all the ADDRESS and the SALARY column values in the
CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use the WHERE clause as the UPDATE
query would be enough as shown in the following code block.

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+

SQL DELETE Query

The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.
You can use the WHERE clause with a DELETE query to delete the selected rows,
otherwise all the records would be deleted.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the DELETE query with the WHERE clause is as follows:

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE [condition];
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
36 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code has a query, which will DELETE a customer, whose ID is 6.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID = 6;
Now, the CUSTOMERS table would have the following records.
18. SQL ─ DELETE Query
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to DELETE all the records from the CUSTOMERS table, you do not
need to use the WHERE clause and the DELETE query would be as follows:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.

SQL LIKE clause

The SQL LIKE clause is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator.
 The percent sign (%)
 The underscore (_)
The percent sign represents zero, one or multiple characters. The underscore
represents a single number or character. These symbols can be used in
combinations.
37 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Syntax
The basic syntax of % and _ is as follows:
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here, XXXX
could be any numeric or string value.
Example
The following table has a few examples showing the WHERE part having different
LIKE clause with '%' and '_' operators:
Statement Description
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%' Finds any values that start with 200.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '%200%' finds any values that have 200 in any position.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%' finds any values that have 00 in the second and third
positions.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_%' finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3
characters in length.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2' finds any values that end with 2.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3' finds any values that have a 2 in the second position
and end with a 3.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3' finds any values in a five-digit number that start with
2 and end with 3.
38 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the records as
shown below.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example, which would display all the records from the
CUSTOMERS table, where the SALARY starts with 200.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL TOP clause

The SQL TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a
table.
Note: All the databases do not support the TOP clause. For example, MySQL
supports the
LIMIT clause to fetch a limited number of records, while Oracle uses the
ROWNUM command to fetch a limited number of records.
Syntax
39 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

The basic syntax of the TOP clause with a SELECT statement would be as follows.
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following query is an example on the SQL server, which would fetch the top 3
records from the CUSTOMERS table.
SQL> SELECT TOP 3 * FROM CUSTOMERS;
20. SQL ─ TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause
This would produce the following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
If you are using MySQL server, then here is an equivalent example:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

LIMIT 3;
This would produce the following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
40 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
If you are using an Oracle server, then the following code block has an equivalent
example.
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
This would produce the following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+

SQL ORDER BY
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending
order, based on one or more columns. Some databases sort the query results in an
ascending order by default.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause is as follows:

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever
column you are using to sort that column should be in the column-list.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
41 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in an
ascending order by the NAME and the SALARY.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;
21. SQL ─ ORDER BY Clause
This would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in the
descending order by NAME.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;
This would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
42 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

To fetch the rows with their own preferred order, the SELECT query used would
be as follows:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY (CASE ADDRESS
WHEN 'DELHI' THEN 1
WHEN 'BHOPAL' THEN 2
WHEN 'KOTA' THEN 3
WHEN 'AHMADABAD' THEN 4
WHEN 'MP' THEN 5
ELSE 100 END) ASC, ADDRESS DESC;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
This will sort the customers by ADDRESS in your own Order of preference first and
in a natural order for the remaining addresses. Also, the remaining Addresses will
be sorted in the reverse alphabetical order.
43 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL GROUP BY
The SQL GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to
arrange identical data into groups. This GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE
clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a GROUP BY clause is shown in the following code block. The
GROUP BY clause must follow the conditions in the WHERE clause and must
precede the ORDER BY clause if one is used.

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table is having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to know the total amount of the salary on each customer, then the
GROUP BY query would be as follows.

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;
44 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

This would produce the following result:

+----------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+----------+-------------+
| Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 2000.00 |
| Khilan | 1500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 2000.00 |
+----------+-------------+
Now, let us look at a table where the CUSTOMERS table has the following records
with duplicate names:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then
the GROUP BY query would be as follows:

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result:

+---------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+---------+-------------+
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 8500.00 |
45 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 3500.00 |
+---------+-------------+

SQL DISTINCT keyword

The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to
eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.
There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table.
While fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only those unique
records instead of fetching duplicate records.

Syntax
The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate the duplicate records is as
follows:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
First, let us see how the following SELECT query returns the duplicate salary
records.

SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

46 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

ORDER BY SALARY;
23. SQL ─ Distinct Keyword
This would produce the following result, where the salary (2000) is coming twice
which is a duplicate record from the original table.
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
Now, let us use the DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and then see
the result.

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where we do not have any duplicate entry.
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
47 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. These are used
to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints could be either on a column level or a table level. The column level
constraints are applied only to one column, whereas the table level constraints are
applied to the whole table.
Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL.
These constraints have already been discussed in SQL - RDBMS Concepts chapter,
but it worth to revise them at this point.
 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identifies row/record in any of the given database
tables.
 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all the values in a
column satisfies certain conditions.
 INDEX: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created with the CREATE TABLE
statement or you can use the ALTER TABLE statement to create constraints even
after the table is created.

SQL - NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a column can hold NULL values. If you do not want a column to have a
NULL value, then you need to define such a constraint on this column specifying
that NULL is now not allowed for that column.
A NULL is not the same as no data, rather, it represents unknown data.
Example
For example, the following SQL query creates a new table called CUSTOMERS and
adds five columns, three of which are – ID, NAME and AGE. In this we specify not
to accept NULLs:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
48 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,

AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a NOT NULL
constraint to the SALARY column in Oracle and MySQL, you would write a query
like the one that is shown in the following code block.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

MODIFY SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) NOT NULL;

SQL - DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a column when the INSERT
INTO statement does not provide a specific value.
Example
For example, the following SQL creates a new table called CUSTOMERS and adds
five columns. Here, the SALARY column is set to 5000.00 by default, so in case the
INSERT INTO statement does not provide a value for this column, then by default
this column would be set to 5000.00.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a DEFAULT
constraint to the SALARY column, you would write a query like the one which is
shown in the code block below.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

MODIFY SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00;
49 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Drop Default Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL query.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

ALTER COLUMN SALARY DROP DEFAULT;

SQL - UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE Constraint prevents two records from having identical values in a
column. In the CUSTOMERS table, for example, you might want to prevent two or
more people from having an identical age.
Example
For example, the following SQL query creates a new table called CUSTOMERS and
adds five columns. Here, the AGE column is set to UNIQUE, so that you cannot
have two records with the same age.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL UNIQUE,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a UNIQUE
constraint to the AGE column. You would write a statement like the query that is
given in the code block below.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

MODIFY AGE INT NOT NULL UNIQUE;

You can also use the following syntax, which supports naming the constraint in
multiple columns as well.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

ADD CONSTRAINT myUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(AGE, SALARY);
50 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL query.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

DROP CONSTRAINT myUniqueConstraint;

If you are using MySQL, then you can use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

DROP INDEX myUniqueConstraint;

SQL ─ Primary Key

A primary key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/record in a
database table. Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary key column
cannot have NULL values.
A table can have only one primary key, which may consist of single or multiple
fields.
When multiple fields are used as a primary key, they are called a composite key.
If a table has a primary key defined on any field(s), then you cannot have two
records having the same value of that field(s).
Note: You would use these concepts while creating database tables.

Create Primary Key

Here is the syntax to define the ID attribute as a primary key in a CUSTOMERS
table.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when the CUSTOMERS
table already exists, use the following SQL syntax:
51 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);

NOTE: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary
key column(s) should have already been declared to not contain NULL values
(when the table was first created).
For defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the SQL syntax
given below.
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID, NAME)
);
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" and "NAMES" columns when
CUSTOMERS table already exists, use the following SQL syntax.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_CUSTID PRIMARY KEY (ID, NAME);

Delete Primary Key

You can clear the primary key constraints from the table with the syntax given
below.
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP PRIMARY KEY ;

SQL ─ Foreign Key

A foreign key is a key used to link two tables together. This is sometimes also called
as a referencing key.
A Foreign Key is a column or a combination of columns whose values match a
Primary Key in a different table.
The relationship between 2 tables matches the Primary Key in one of the tables
with a Foreign Key in the second table.
52 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

If a table has a primary key defined on any field(s), then you cannot have two
records having the same value of that field(s).
Example
Consider the structure of the following two tables.
CUSTOMERS Table:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
ORDERS Table
CREATE TABLE ORDERS (
ID INT NOT NULL,
DATE DATETIME,
CUSTOMER_ID INT references CUSTOMERS(ID),
AMOUNT double,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the ORDERS table has already been created and the foreign key has not yet been
set, the use the syntax for specifying a foreign key by altering a table.

ALTER TABLE ORDERS

ADD FOREIGN KEY (Customer_ID) REFERENCES CUSTOMERS (ID);

DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL syntax.

ALTER TABLE ORDERS

DROP FOREIGN KEY;

SQL ─ CHECK Constraint

The CHECK Constraint enables a condition to check the value being entered into a
record.
53 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

If the condition evaluates to false, the record violates the constraint and isn't
entered the table.
Example
For example, the following program creates a new table called CUSTOMERS and
adds five columns. Here, we add a CHECK with AGE column, so that you cannot
have any CUSTOMER who is below 18 years.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK (AGE >= 18),
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the CUSTOMERS table has already been created, then to add a CHECK
constraint to AGE column, you would write a statement like the one given below.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

MODIFY AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK (AGE >= 18 );

You can also use the following syntax, which supports naming the constraint in
multiple columns as well:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

ADD CONSTRAINT myCheckConstraint CHECK(AGE >= 18);

DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL syntax. This syntax does not
work with MySQL.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

DROP CONSTRAINT myCheckConstraint;
54 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL ─ INDEX Constraint

The INDEX is used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly. An
Index can be created by using a single or a group of columns in a table. When the
index is created, it is assigned a ROWID for each row before it sorts out the data.
Proper indexes are good for performance in large databases, but you need to be
careful while creating an index. A selection of fields depends on what you are using
in your SQL queries.
Example
For example, the following SQL syntax creates a new table called CUSTOMERS
and adds five columns:

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Now, you can create an index on a single or multiple columns using the syntax
given below.

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2.....);

To create an INDEX on the AGE column, to optimize the search on customers for
a specific age, follow the SQL syntax which is given below.

CREATE INDEX idx_age

ON CUSTOMERS ( AGE );

DROP an INDEX Constraint

To drop an INDEX constraint, use the following SQL syntax.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

DROP INDEX idx_age;
55 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Dropping Constraints
Any constraint that you have defined can be dropped using the ALTER TABLE
command with the DROP CONSTRAINT option.
For example, to drop the primary key constraint in the EMPLOYEES table, you can
use the following command.

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP CONSTRAINT EMPLOYEES_PK;

Some implementations may provide shortcuts for dropping certain constraints.

For example, to drop the primary key constraint for a table in Oracle, you can use
the following command.
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Some implementations allow you to disable constraints. Instead of permanently
dropping a constraint from the database, you may want to temporarily disable the
constraint and then enable it later.

Integrity Constraints
Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of the data in a
relational database. Data integrity is handled in a relational database through the
concept of referential integrity.
There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in Referential
Integrity (RI). These constraints include Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique
Constraints and other constraints which are mentioned above.
The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database.
A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common
to each.
Consider the following two tables:

Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
56 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as shown below.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS
WHERE CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
26. SQL ─ Using Joins
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Here, it is noticeable that the join is performed in the WHERE clause. Several
operators can be used to join tables, such as =, <, >, <>, <=, >=, !=, BETWEEN, LIKE,
and NOT; they can all be used to join tables. However, the most common operator
is the equal to symbol.
There are different types of joins available in SQL:
57 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

INNER JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in both tables.

LEFT JOIN: returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the
right table.
RIGHT JOIN: returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in
the left table.
FULL JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SELF JOIN: is used to join a table to itself as if the table were two tables,
temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
CARTESIAN JOIN: returns the Cartesian product of the sets of records from the
two or more joined tables.
Let us now discuss each of these joins in detail.

SQL - INNER JOIN

The most important and frequently used of the joins is the INNER JOIN. They are
also referred to as an EQUIJOIN.
The INNER JOIN creates a new result table by combining column values of two
tables (table1 and table2) based upon the join-predicate. The query compares each
row of table1 with each row of table2 to find all pairs of rows which satisfy the join-
predicate. When the join-predicate is satisfied, column values for each matched
pair of rows of A and B are combined into a result row.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the INNER JOIN is as follows.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;

Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
58 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables using the INNER JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
INNER JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
59 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL ─ LEFT JOIN

The SQL LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no
matches in the right table. This means that if the ON clause matches 0 (zero)
records in the right table; the join will still return a row in the result, but with NULL
in each column from the right table.
This means that a left join returns all the values from the left table, plus matched
values from the right table or NULL in case of no matching join predicate.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a LEFT JOIN is as follows.
SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;
Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables,
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: Orders Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
60 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables using the LEFT JOIN as follows.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+

SQL - RIGHT JOIN

The SQL RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no
matches in the left table. This means that if the ON clause matches 0 (zero) records
in the left table; the join will still return a row in the result, but with NULL in each
column from the left table.
This means that a right join returns all the values from the right table, plus matched
values from the left table or NULL in case of no matching join predicate.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a RIGHT JOIN is as follow.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;
61 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Example
Consider the following two tables,
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables using the RIGHT JOIN as follows.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result:
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
62 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

SQL ─ FULL JOIN

The SQL FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins.
The joined table will contain all records from both the tables and fill in NULLs for
missing matches on either side.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a FULL JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;

Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
63 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+

Now, let us join these two tables using FULL JOIN as follows.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
FULL JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result.

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
If your Database does not support FULL JOIN (MySQL does not support FULL
JOIN), then you can use UNION ALL clause to combine these two JOINS as shown
below.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
64 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID

SQL ─ SELF JOIN

The SQL SELF JOIN is used to join a table to itself as if the table were two tables;
temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
Syntax
The basic syntax of SELF JOIN is as follows:

SELECT a.column_name, b.column_name...

FROM table1 a, table1 b
WHERE a.common_field = b.common_field;

Here, the WHERE clause could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following table.
CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, let us join this table using SELF JOIN as follows:
65 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL> SELECT a.ID, b.NAME, a.SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS a, CUSTOMERS b
WHERE a.SALARY < b.SALARY;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+---------+
| 2 | Ramesh | 1500.00 |
| 2 | kaushik | 1500.00 |
| 1 | Chaitali | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Chaitali | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Chaitali | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Chaitali | 4500.00 |
| 1 | Hardik | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Hardik | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Hardik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Hardik | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Hardik | 4500.00 |
| 1 | Komal | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Komal | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Komal | 2000.00 |
| 1 | Muffy | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Muffy | 1500.00 |
| 3 | Muffy | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Muffy | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Muffy | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Muffy | 4500.00 |
+----+----------+---------+

SQL ─ CARTESIAN or CROSS JOIN

The CARTESIAN JOIN or CROSS JOIN returns the Cartesian product of the sets of
records from two or more joined tables. Thus, it equates to an inner join where the
join-condition always evaluates to either True or where the join-condition is absent
from the statement.
Syntax
66 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

The basic syntax of the CARTESIAN JOIN or the CROSS JOIN is as follows:

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1, table2 [, table3 ]

Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows:
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables using INNER JOIN as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+
67 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 1 | Ramesh | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |

| 1 | Ramesh | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 6 | Komal | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+----+----------+--------+---------------------+

SQL UNION clause/operator

The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more
SELECT statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use this UNION clause, each SELECT statement must have
The same number of columns selected
The same number of column expressions
68 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

The same data type and

Have them in the same order
But they need not have to be in the same length.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a UNION clause is as follows:

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
UNION
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
69 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+

The UNION ALL Clause

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT
statements including duplicate rows.
The same rules that apply to the UNION clause will apply to the UNION ALL
operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the UNION ALL is as follows.
70 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
UNION ALL
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.

Example
Consider the following two tables,
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
71 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |

| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result:

+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
There are two other clauses (i.e., operators), which are like the UNION clause.
72 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL INTERSECT Clause: This is used to combine two SELECT statements, but
returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in
the second SELECT statement.
SQL EXCEPT Clause: This combines two SELECT statements and returns rows
from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT
statement.

SQL ─ INTERSECT Clause

The SQL INTERSECT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements,
but returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row
in the second
SELECT statement. This means INTERSECT returns only common rows returned
by the two SELECT statements.
Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the INTERSECT
operator. MySQL does not support the INTERSECT operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of INTERSECT is as follows.
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
INTERSECT
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
73 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
INTERSECT
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result.

+------+---------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+---------+--------+---------------------+
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+---------+--------+---------------------+
74 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL ─ EXCEPT Clause

The SQL EXCEPT clause/operator is used to combine two SELECT statements and
returns rows from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second
SELECT statement. This means EXCEPT returns only rows, which are not available
in the second SELECT statement.
Just as with the UNION operator, the same rules apply when using the EXCEPT
operator.
MySQL does not support the EXCEPT operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of EXCEPT is as follows.

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
EXCEPT
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your
requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2: ORDERS table is as follows.
75 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as shown below.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
EXCEPT
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result.

+----+---------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+----+---------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |

The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a
table is a value in a field that appears to be blank.
76 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand
that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.
Syntax
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table.

SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Here, NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of
the given data type. There are two columns where we did not use NOT NULL,
which means these columns could be NULL.
A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during the record
creation.
Example
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data. However, because when
comparing an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and
not included in the results. You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators
to check for a NULL value.

Consider the following CUSTOMERS table having the records as shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
77 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |

Now, following is the usage of the IS NOT NULL operator.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now, following is the usage of the IS NULL operator.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NULL;

This would produce the following result:

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
You can rename a table or a column temporarily by giving another name known as
Alias.
78 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

The use of table aliases is to rename a table in a specific SQL statement. The
renaming is a temporary change and the actual table name does not change in the
database. The column aliases are used to rename a table's columns for the purpose
of a particular SQL query.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a table alias is as follows.

SELECT column1, column2....

FROM table_name AS alias_name
WHERE [condition];

The basic syntax of a column alias is as follows.

SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1: CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
Table 2: ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
79 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, the following code block shows the usage of a table alias.

SQL> SELECT C.ID, C.NAME, C.AGE, O.AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS AS C, ORDERS AS O
WHERE C.ID = O.CUSTOMER_ID;

This would produce the following result.

+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Following is the usage of a column alias.

SQL> SELECT ID AS CUSTOMER_ID, NAME AS CUSTOMER_NAME

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce the following result.

+-------------+---------------+
| CUSTOMER_ID | CUSTOMER_NAME |
+-------------+---------------+
| 1 | Ramesh |
| 2 | Khilan |
| 3 | kaushik |
| 4 | Chaitali |
| 5 | Hardik |
| 6 | Komal |
| 7 | Muffy |
+-------------+---------------+
Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to
speed up data retrieval. Simply put, an index is a pointer to data in a table. An index
in a database is very similar to an index in the back of a book.
80 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

For example, if you want to reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain
topic, you first refer to the index, which lists all the topics alphabetically and are
then referred to one or more specific page numbers.
An index helps to speed up SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it slows down
data input, with the UPDATE and the INSERT statements. Indexes can be created
or dropped with no effect on the data.
Creating an index involves the CREATE INDEX statement, which allows you to
name the index, to specify the table and which column or columns to index, and to
indicate whether the index is in an ascending or descending order.
Indexes can also be unique, like the UNIQUE constraint, in that the index prevents
duplicate entries in the column or combination of columns on which there is an
index.

The CREATE INDEX Command

The basic syntax of a CREATE INDEX is as follows.

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name;

Single-Column Indexes
A single-column index is created based on only one table column. The basic syntax
is as follows.
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name);
Unique Indexes
Unique indexes are used not only for performance, but also for data integrity. A
unique index does not allow any duplicate values to be inserted into the table. The
basic syntax is as follows.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column_name);
30. SQL – Indexes

Composite Indexes
A composite index is an index on two or more columns of a table. Its basic syntax
is as follows.

CREATE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column1, column2);
81 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Whether to create a single-column index or a composite index, take into

consideration the column(s) that you may use very frequently in a query's WHERE
clause as filter conditions.
Should there be only one column used, a single-column index should be the choice.
Should there be two or more columns that are frequently used in the WHERE
clause as filters, the composite index would be the best choice.
Implicit Indexes
Implicit indexes are indexes that are automatically created by the database server
when an object is created. Indexes are automatically created for primary key
constraints and unique constraints.

The DROP INDEX Command

An index can be dropped using SQL DROP command. Care should be taken when
dropping an index because the performance may either slow down or improve.
The basic syntax is as follows:
DROP INDEX index_name;
You can check the INDEX Constraint chapter to see some actual examples on
Indexes.
When should indexes be avoided?
Although indexes are intended to enhance a database's performance, there are
times when they should be avoided.
 The following guidelines indicate when the use of an index should be
reconsidered.
 Indexes should not be used on small tables.
 Tables that have frequent, large batch updates or insert operations.
 Indexes should not be used on columns that contain a high number of NULL
values.
 Columns that are frequently manipulated should not be indexed.
82 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL - INDEX Constraint

The INDEX is used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.
Index can be created by using a single or group of columns in a table. When the
index is created, it is assigned a ROWID for each row before it sorts out the data.
Proper indexes are good for performance in large databases, but you need to be
careful while creating an index. Selection of fields depends on what you are using
in your SQL queries.
Example
For example, the following SQL creates a new table called CUSTOMERS and adds
five columns in it.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Now, you can create an index on a single or multiple columns using the syntax
given below.

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name ( column1, column2.....);

To create an INDEX on the AGE column, to optimize the search on customers for
a specific age, you can use the following SQL syntax:

CREATE INDEX idx_age

ON CUSTOMERS ( AGE );

DROP an INDEX Constraint

To drop an INDEX constraint, use the following SQL syntax.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS

DROP INDEX idx_age;
83 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL ALTER TABLE command

The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete or modify columns in an
existing table. You should also use the ALTER TABLE command to add and drop
various constraints on an existing table.
Syntax
The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to add a New Column in an
existing table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to DROP COLUMN in an existing

table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to change the DATA TYPE of a
column in a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to add a NOT NULL constraint to
a column in a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name datatype NOT NULL;

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to ADD UNIQUE CONSTRAINT

to a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to

a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint CHECK (CONDITION);
84 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

31. SQL ─ ALTER TABLE Command

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint
to a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to DROP CONSTRAINT from a

table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX MyUniqueConstraint;

The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to DROP PRIMARY KEY

constraint from a table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
85 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following is the example to ADD a New Column to an existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD SEX char(1);

Now, the CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from the
SELECT statement.
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY | SEX |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 | NULL |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
Following is the example to DROP sex column from the existing table.

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP SEX;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be the output from
the SELECT statement.
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
86 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command

The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an
existing table.
You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would
remove complete table structure form the database and you would need to re-
create this table once again if you wish you store some data.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a TRUNCATE TABLE command is as follows.

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example
Consider a CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example of a Truncate command.

SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Now, the CUSTOMERS table is truncated and the output from SELECT statement
will be as shown in the code block below:
87 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

Empty set (0.00 sec)
32. SQL - TRUNCATE TABLE Command
A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with
an associated name. A view is actually a composition of a table in the form of a
predefined SQL query.
A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. A view can be
created from one or many tables which depends on the written SQL query to
create a view.
 Views, which are a type of virtual tables allow users to do the following:
 Structure data in a way that users or classes of users find natural or intuitive.
 Restrict access to the data in such a way that a user can see and (sometimes)
modify exactly what they need and no more.
 Summarize data from various tables which can be used to generate reports.

Creating Views
Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views can be
created from a single table, multiple tables or another view.
To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege according to
the specific implementation.
The basic CREATE VIEW syntax is as follows:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];

You can include multiple tables in your SELECT statement in a similar way as you
use them in a normal SQL SELECT query.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
88 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example to create a view from the CUSTOMERS table. This view
would be used to have customer name and age from the CUSTOMERS table.
SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, you can query CUSTOMERS_VIEW in a similar way as you query an actual
table. Following is an example for the same.

SQL > SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;

This would produce the following result.

+----------+-----+
| name | age |
+----------+-----+
| Ramesh | 32 |
| Khilan | 25 |
| kaushik | 23 |
| Chaitali | 25 |
| Hardik | 27 |
| Komal | 22 |
| Muffy | 24 |
+----------+-----+

The WITH CHECK OPTION

The WITH CHECK OPTION is a CREATE VIEW statement option. The purpose of
the WITH CHECK OPTION is to ensure that all UPDATE and INSERTs satisfy the
condition(s) in the view definition.
If they do not satisfy the condition(s), the UPDATE or INSERT returns an error.
The following code block has an example of creating same view
CUSTOMERS_VIEW with the WITH CHECK OPTION.
89 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS

SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE age IS NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTION;

The WITH CHECK OPTION in this case should deny the entry of any NULL values
in the view's AGE column, because the view is defined by data that does not have
a NULL value in the AGE column.

Updating a View
A view can be updated under certain conditions which are given below –
 The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.
 The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
 The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
 The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.
 The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY clause.
 The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
 The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
 The query may not contain GROUP BY or HAVING.
 Calculated columns may not be updated.
All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the view in order
for the INSERT query to function.
So, if a view satisfies all the above-mentioned rules then you can update that view.
The following code block has an example to update the age of Ramesh.

SQL > UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW

SET AGE = 35
WHERE name='Ramesh';

This would ultimately update the base table CUSTOMERS and the same would
reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query the base table and the SELECT
statement would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
90 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Inserting Rows into a View

Rows of data can be inserted into a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE
command also apply to the INSERT command.
Here, we cannot insert rows in the CUSTOMERS_VIEW because we have not
included all the NOT NULL columns in this view, otherwise you can insert rows in
a view in a similar way as you insert them in a table.

Deleting Rows into a View

Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE
and INSERT commands apply to the DELETE command.
Following is an example to delete a record having AGE = 22.

SQL > DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW

WHERE age = 22;

This would ultimately delete a row from the base table CUSTOMERS and the same
would reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query the base table and the SELECT
statement would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
91 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Dropping Views
Obviously, where you have a view, you need a way to drop the view if it is no longer
needed. The syntax is very simple and is given below:

DROP VIEW view_name;

Following is an example to drop the CUSTOMERS_VIEW from the CUSTOMERS

table.

DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;

The HAVING Clause enables you to specify conditions that filter which group
results appear in the results.
The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the
HAVING clause places conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.
Syntax
The following code block shows the position of the HAVING Clause in a query.

SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
ORDER BY

The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must also
precede the ORDER BY clause if used. The following code block has the syntax of
the SELECT statement including the HAVING clause:

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table1, table2
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING [ conditions ]
ORDER BY column1, column2
92 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
34. SQL ─ Having Clause
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example, which would display a record for a similar age count that
would be more than or equal to 2.

SQL > SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY age
HAVING COUNT(age) >= 2;

This would produce the following result:

+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
A transaction is a unit of work that is performed against a database. Transactions
are units or sequences of work accomplished in a logical order, whether in a
manual fashion by a user or automatically by some sort of a database program.
A transaction is the propagation of one or more changes to the database. For
example, if you are creating a record or updating a record or deleting a record from
the table, then you are performing a transaction on that table. It is important to
control these transactions to ensure the data integrity and to handle database
errors.
93 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Practically, you will club many SQL queries into a group and you will execute all of
them together as a part of a transaction.
Properties of Transactions
Transactions have the following four standard properties, usually referred to by
the acronym ACID.
Atomicity: ensures that all operations within the work unit are completed
successfully. Otherwise, the transaction is aborted at the point of failure and all
the previous operations are rolled back to their former state.
Consistency: ensures that the database properly changes states upon a
successfully committed transaction.
Isolation: enables transactions to operate independently of and transparent to
each other.
Durability: ensures that the result or effect of a committed transaction persists in
case of a system failure.

TRANSACTION CONTROL
The following commands are used to control transactions.
COMMIT: to save the changes.
ROLLBACK: to roll back the changes.
SAVEPOINT: creates points within the groups of transactions in which to
ROLLBACK.
SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.
Transactional Control Commands
Transactional control commands are only used with the DML Commands such as
– INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE only. They cannot be used while creating tables
or dropping them because these operations are automatically committed in the
database.

The COMMIT Command

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes
invoked by a transaction to the database. The COMMIT command saves all the
transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command.
The syntax for the COMMIT command is as follows.
COMMIT;
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
94 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would delete those records from the table which
have age = 25 and then COMMIT the changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> COMMIT;

Thus, two rows from the table would be deleted and the SELECT statement would
produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The ROLLBACK Command

The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo
transactions that have not already been saved to the database. This command can
only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command
was issued.
The syntax for a ROLLBACK command is as follows:
ROLLBACK;
95 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example, which would delete those records from the table which
have the age = 25 and then ROLLBACK the changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> ROLLBACK;

Thus, the delete operation would not impact the table and the SELECT statement
would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
96 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

The SAVEPOINT Command

A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to
a certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
The syntax for a SAVEPOINT command is as shown below.

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT among all the
transactional statements. The ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of
transactions.
The syntax for rolling back to a SAVEPOINT is as shown below.

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Following is an example where you plan to delete the three different records from
the CUSTOMERS table. You want to create a SAVEPOINT before each delete, so
that you can ROLLBACK to any SAVEPOINT at any time to return the appropriate
data to its original state.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code block contains the series of operations.

SQL> SAVEPOINT SP1;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=1;
1 row deleted.
97 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL> SAVEPOINT SP2;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=2;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP3;
Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=3;
1 row deleted.

Now that the three deletions have taken place, let us assume that you have
changed your mind and decided to ROLLBACK to the SAVEPOINT that you
identified as SP2. Because SP2 was created after the first deletion, the last two
deletions are undone:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SP2;

Rollback complete.

Notice that only the first deletion took place since you rolled back to SP2.
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
6 rows selected.

The RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command

The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT that you
have created.
The syntax for a RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is as follows.
RELEASE SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
98 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the ROLLBACK
command to undo transactions performed since the last SAVEPOINT.

The SET TRANSACTION Command

The SET TRANSACTION command can be used to initiate a database transaction.
This command is used to specify characteristics for the transaction that follows.
For example, you can specify a transaction to be read only or read write.
The syntax for a SET TRANSACTION command is as follows.

SET TRANSACTION [ READ WRITE | READ ONLY ];

We have already discussed about the SQL LIKE operator, which is used to compare
a value to similar values using the wildcard operators.
SQL supports two wildcard operators in conjunction with the LIKE operator which
are explained in detail in the following table.

Wildcard Operators Description

The percent sign (%)
Matches one or more characters.
Note: MS Access uses the asterisk (*) wildcard character instead of the percent
sign (%) wildcard character.
The underscore (_) Matches one character.
Note: MS Access uses a question mark (?) instead of the underscore (_) to match
any one character.
The percent sign represents zero, one or multiple characters. The underscore
represents a single number or a character. These symbols can be used in
combinations.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a '%' and a '_' operator is as follows.
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'
Or
99 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'
Or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'

You can combine N number of conditions using the AND or the OR operators.
Here, XXXX could be any numeric or string value.
Example
The following table has a number of examples showing the WHERE part having
different LIKE clauses with '%' and '_' operators.
Statement Description
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%' Finds any values that start with 200.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '%200%' Finds any values that have 200 in any position.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%'
Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_%'
Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in length.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2' Finds any values that end with 2.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3'
Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with a 3.
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3'
Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with
2 and end with 3.
Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following
records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
100 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following code block is an example, which would display all the records from
the
CUSTOMERS table where the SALARY starts with 200.
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following table has a list of all the important Date and Time related functions
available through SQL. There are various other functions supported by your
RDBMS. The given list is based on MySQL RDBMS.

Name Description
ADDDATE() Adds dates
ADDTIME() Adds time
CONVERT_TZ() Converts from one timezone to another
CURDATE() Returns the current date
CURRENT_DATE(),
CURRENT_DATE
Synonyms for CURDATE()
CURRENT_TIME(),
CURRENT_TIME
Synonyms for CURTIME()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(),
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
Synonyms for NOW()
CURTIME() Returns the current time
DATE_ADD() Adds two dates
101 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

DATE_FORMAT() Formats date as specified

DATE_SUB() Subtracts two dates
DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or datetime expression
DATEDIFF() Subtracts two dates
DAY() Synonym for DAYOFMONTH()
DAYNAME() Returns the name of the weekday
DAYOFMONTH() Returns the day of the month (1-31)
DAYOFWEEK() Returns the weekday index of the argument
DAYOFYEAR() Returns the day of the year (1-366)
EXTRACT Extracts part of a date
FROM_DAYS() Converts a day number to a date
FROM_UNIXTIME() Formats date as a UNIX timestamp
HOUR() Extracts the hour
LAST_DAY Returns the last day of the month for the argument
LOCALTIME(), LOCALTIME Synonym for NOW()
LOCALTIMESTAMP,
LOCALTIMESTAMP()
Synonym for NOW()
MAKEDATE() Creates a date from the year and day of year
MAKETIME MAKETIME()
MICROSECOND() Returns the microseconds from argument
MINUTE() Returns the minute from the argument
MONTH() Return the month from the date passed
MONTHNAME() Returns the name of the month
NOW() Returns the current date and time
PERIOD_ADD() Adds a period to a year-month
PERIOD_DIFF() Returns the number of months between periods
QUARTER() Returns the quarter from a date argument
SEC_TO_TIME() Converts seconds to 'HH:MM:SS' format
SECOND() Returns the second (0-59)
STR_TO_DATE() Converts a string to a date
SUBDATE()
When invoked with three arguments a synonym for DATE_SUB()
SUBTIME() Subtracts times
SYSDATE() Returns the time at which the function executes
TIME_FORMAT() Formats as time
102 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

TIME_TO_SEC() Returns the argument converted to seconds

TIME() Extracts the time portion of the expression passed
TIMEDIFF() Subtracts time
TIMESTAMP()
With a single argument this function returns the date or datetime expression. With
two arguments, the sum of the arguments
TIMESTAMPADD() Adds an interval to a datetime expression
TIMESTAMPDIFF() Subtracts an interval from a datetime expression
TO_DAYS() Returns the date argument converted to days
UNIX_TIMESTAMP() Returns a UNIX timestamp
UTC_DATE() Returns the current UTC date
UTC_TIME() Returns the current UTC time
UTC_TIMESTAMP() Returns the current UTC date and time
WEEK() Returns the week number
WEEKDAY() Returns the weekday index
WEEKOFYEAR() Returns the calendar week of the date (1-53)
YEAR() Returns the year
YEARWEEK() Returns the year and week
ADDDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit), ADDDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, ADDDATE() is a
synonym for DATE_ADD(). The related function SUBDATE() is a synonym for
DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see the discussion
for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
103 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

1 row in set (0.00 sec)

When invoked with the days form of the second argument, MySQL treats it as an
integer number of days to be added to expr.
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', 31);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
ADDTIME(expr1,expr2)
ADDTIME() adds expr2 to expr1 and returns the result. The expr1 is a time or
datetime
expression, while the expr2 is a time expression.
mysql> SELECT ADDTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-02 01:01:01.000001 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+

1 row in set (0.00 sec)

CONVERT_TZ(dt,from_tz,to_tz)
This converts a datetime value dt from the time zone given by from_tz to the time
zone given by to_tz and returns the resulting value. This function returns NULL if
the arguments are invalid.
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 13:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00') |
104 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 22:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CURDATE()
Returns the current date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format,
depending on whether the function is used in a string or in a numeric context.
mysql> SELECT CURDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT CURDATE() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 19971215 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE()

CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE() are synonyms for CURDATE()
CURTIME() Returns the current time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS
format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or in a numeric
context. The value is expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT CURTIME();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 23:50:26 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT CURTIME() + 0;
105 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 235026 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME()
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME() are synonyms for CURTIME().
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
DATE(expr)
Extracts the date part of the date or datetime expression expr.
mysql> SELECT DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
DATEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in days from one date to
the other. Both expr1 and expr2 are date or date-and-time expressions. Only the
date parts of the values are used in the calculation.

mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATE_ADD(date,INTERVAL expr unit), DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr
unit) These functions perform date arithmetic. The Date is a DATETIME or DATE
value specifying the starting date. The expr is an expression specifying the interval
value to be added or subtracted from the starting date. The expr is a string; it may
start with a '-' for negative intervals.
106 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

A Unit is a keyword indicating the units in which the expression should be

interpreted.
The INTERVAL keyword and the unit specifier are not case sensitive.
The following table shows the expected form of the expr argument for each unit
value.
unit Value ExpectedexprFormat
MICROSECOND MICROSECONDS
SECOND SECONDS
MINUTE MINUTES
HOUR HOURS
DAY DAYS
WEEK WEEKS
MONTH MONTHS
QUARTER QUARTERS
YEAR YEARS
SECOND_MICROSECOND 'SECONDS.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_MICROSECOND 'MINUTES.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_SECOND 'MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MICROSECOND 'HOURS.MICROSECONDS'
HOUR_SECOND 'HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MINUTE 'HOURS:MINUTES'
DAY_MICROSECOND 'DAYS.MICROSECONDS'
DAY_SECOND 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
DAY_MINUTE 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES'
DAY_HOUR 'DAYS HOURS'
YEAR_MONTH 'YEARS-MONTHS'

The values QUARTER and WEEK are available from the MySQL 5.0.0 version.

mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59',

-> INTERVAL '1:1' MINUTE_SECOND);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59', INTERVAL... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-01 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
107 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999-01-01 01:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

DATE_FORMAT(date,format)
This command formats the date value as per the format string. The following
specifiers may be used in the format string. The '%' character is required before
the format specifier characters.

Specifier Description
%a Abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)
%b Abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)
%c Month, numeric (0..12)
%D Day of the month with English suffix (0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, .)
%d Day of the month, numeric (00..31)
%e Day of the month, numeric (0..31)
%f Microseconds (000000..999999)
%H Hour (00..23)
%h Hour (01..12)
%I Hour (01..12)
%i Minutes, numeric (00..59)
%j Day of year (001..366)
%k Hour (0..23)
%l Hour (1..12)
%M Month name (January..December)
%m Month, numeric (00..12)
%p AM or PM
%r Time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss followed by AM or PM)
%S Seconds (00..59)
%s Seconds (00..59)
%T Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
%U Week (00..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week
%u Week (00..53), where Monday is the first day of the week
108 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

%V
Week (01..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; used with
%X
%v
Week (01..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; used with
%x
%W Weekday name (Sunday..Saturday)
%w Day of the week (0=Sunday..6=Saturday)
%X
Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits;
used with %V
%x
Year for the week, where Monday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits;
used with %v
%Y Year, numeric, four digits
%y Year, numeric (two digits)
%% A literal .%. character
%x x, for any.x. not listed above

mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Saturday October 1997 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00'

-> '%H %k %I %r %T %S %w');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00....... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 22 22 10 10:23:00 PM 22:23:00 00 6 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)

109 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

This is similar to the DATE_ADD() function.

DAY(date)
The DAY() is a synonym for the DAYOFMONTH() function.

DAYNAME(date)
Returns the name of the weekday for date.

mysql> SELECT DAYNAME('1998-02-05');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Thursday |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

DAYOFMONTH(date)
Returns the day of the month for date, in the range 0 to 31.

mysql> SELECT DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

DAYOFWEEK(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (1 = Sunday, 2 = Monday, ., 7 = Saturday).
These index values correspond to the ODBC standard.

mysql> SELECT DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
|DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3|
110 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

DAYOFYEAR(date)
Returns the day of the year for date, in the range 1 to 366.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 34 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

EXTRACT(unit FROM date)

The EXTRACT() function uses the same kinds of unit specifiers as DATE_ADD() or
DATE_SUB(), but extracts parts from the date rather than performing date
arithmetic.

mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199907 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

FROM_DAYS(N)
Given a day number N, returns a DATE value.
mysql> SELECT FROM_DAYS(729669);
111 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_DAYS(729669) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-07 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Note: Use FROM_DAYS() with caution on old dates. It is not intended for use with
values that precede the advent of the Gregorian calendar (1582).

HOUR(time)
Returns the hour for time. The range of the return value is 0 to 23 for time-of-day
values. However, the range of TIME values actually is much larger, so HOUR can
return values greater than 23.

mysql> SELECT HOUR('10:05:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| HOUR('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 10 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

LAST_DAY(date)
Takes a date or datetime value and returns the corresponding value for the last
day of the month. Returns NULL if the argument is invalid.

mysql> SELECT LAST_DAY('2003-02-05');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| LAST_DAY('2003-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-02-28 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME()

LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME() are synonyms for NOW().
112 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP()

LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
MAKEDATE(year,dayofyear) Returns a date, given year and day-of-year values.
The dayofyear value must be greater than 0 or the result will be NULL.

mysql> SELECT MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '2001-01-31', '2001-02-01' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

MAKETIME(hour,minute,second)
Returns a time value calculated from the hour, minute and second arguments.
mysql> SELECT MAKETIME(12,15,30);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKETIME(12,15,30) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '12:15:30' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

MICROSECOND(expr)
Returns the microseconds from the time or datetime expression (expr) as a
number in the range from 0 to 999999.

mysql> SELECT MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 123456 |
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

MINUTE(time)
Returns the minute for time, in the range 0 to 59.
113 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

mysql> SELECT MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|5|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

MONTH(date)
Returns the month for date, in the range 0 to 12.
mysql> SELECT MONTH('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

MONTHNAME(date)
Returns the full name of the month for a date.
mysql> SELECT MONTHNAME('1998-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTHNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| February |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

NOW()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a
string or numeric context. This value is expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT NOW();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| NOW() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 23:50:26 |
114 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

QUARTER(date)
Returns the quarter of the year for date, in the range 1 to 4.
mysql> SELECT QUARTER('98-04-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| QUARTER('98-04-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SECOND(time)
Returns the second for time, in the range 0 to 59.
mysql> SELECT SECOND('10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SECOND('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SEC_TO_TIME(seconds)
Returns the seconds argument, converted to hours, minutes and seconds, as a
value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is
used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SEC_TO_TIME(2378);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SEC_TO_TIME(2378) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 00:39:38 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
STR_TO_DATE(str,format)
This is the inverse of the DATE_FORMAT() function. It takes a string str and a
format
115 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

string format. The STR_TO_DATE() function returns a DATETIME value if the

format string
contains both date and time parts. Else, it returns a DATE or TIME value if the
string
contains only date or time parts.
SQL
153
mysql> SELECT STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-04-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit) and SUBDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, SUBDATE() is a
synonym for DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see
the discussion for DATE_ADD().

mysql> SELECT DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+

1 row in set (0.00 sec)

SYSDATE()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or
116 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a

string or in a numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SYSDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SYSDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2006-04-12 13:47:44 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TIME(expr)
Extracts the time part of the time or datetime expression expr and returns it as a
string.
mysql> SELECT TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 01:02:03 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TIMEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
The TIMEDIFF() function returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a time value. These
expr1 and expr2 values are time or date-and-time expressions, but both must be
of the same type.
mysql> SELECT TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001','1997-12-30
01:01:01.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001'..... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 46:58:57.999999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TIMESTAMPADD(unit,interval,datetime_expr)
117 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

This function adds the integer expression interval to the date or datetime
expression –
datetime_expr. The unit for interval is given by the unit argument, which should
be one of the following values –
 FRAC_SECOND
 SECOND, MINUTE
 HOUR, DAY
 WEEK
 MONTH
 QUARTER or
 YEAR
The unit value may be specified using one of the keywords as shown or with a
prefix of SQL_TSI_.
For example, DAY and SQL_TSI_DAY both are legal.

mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-01-02 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit,datetime_expr1,datetime_expr2)
Returns the integer difference between the date or datetime expressions
datetime_expr1 and datetime_expr2. The unit for the result is given by the unit
argument. The legal values for the unit are the same as those listed in the
description of the TIMESTAMPADD() function.

mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
118 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

TIME_TO_SEC(time)
Returns the time argument converted to seconds.
mysql> SELECT TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 80580 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

UTC_DATE, UTC_DATE()
Returns the current UTC date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format,
depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14, 20030814 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

UTC_TIME, UTC_TIME()
Returns the current UTC time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format,
depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 18:07:53, 180753 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

UTC_TIMESTAMP, UTC_TIMESTAMP()
Returns the current UTC date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or
in a YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in
a string or in a numeric context.
119 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

mysql> SELECT UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14 18:08:04, 20030814180804 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

WEEK(date[,mode])
This function returns the week number for date. The two-argument form of
WEEK() allows you to specify whether the week starts on a Sunday or a Monday
and whether the return value should be in the range from 0 to 53 or from 1 to 53. If
the mode argument is omitted, the value of the default_week_format system
variable is used Mode First Day of week Range Week 1 is the first week.
0 Sunday 0-53 with a Sunday in this year
1 Monday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year
2 Sunday 1-53 with a Sunday in this year
3 Monday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year
4 Sunday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year
5 Monday 0-53 with a Monday in this year
6 Sunday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year
7 Monday 1-53 with a Monday in this year

mysql> SELECT WEEK('1998-02-20');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEK('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|7|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

WEEKDAY(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (0 = Monday, 1 = Tuesday, . 6 = Sunday).
mysql> SELECT WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
120 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

| WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1|
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

WEEKOFYEAR(date)
Returns the calendar week of the date as a number in the range from 1 to 53.
WEEKOFYEAR() is a compatibility function that is equivalent to WEEK(date,3).

mysql> SELECT WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|8|
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

YEAR(date)
Returns the year for date, in the range 1000 to 9999 or 0 for the .zero. date.
mysql> SELECT YEAR('98-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

YEARWEEK(date), YEARWEEK(date,mode)
Returns the year and the week for a date. The mode argument works exactly like
the mode argument to the WEEK() function. The year in the result may be different
from the year in the date argument for the first and the last week of the year.

mysql> SELECT YEARWEEK('1987-01-01');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03')YEARWEEK('1987-01-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 198653 |
121 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Note: The week number is different from what the WEEK() function would return
(0) for optional arguments 0 or 1, as WEEK() then returns the week in the context
of the given year.

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command

A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL query
and embedded within the WHERE clause. A subquery is used to return data that
will be used in the main query as a condition to further restrict the data to be
retrieved. Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN,
etc. There are a few rules that subqueries must follow:
 Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.
 A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple
columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its selected
columns.
 An ORDER BY command cannot be used in a subquery, although the main
query can use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY command can be used to
perform the same nfunction as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
 Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple
value operators such as the IN operator.
 The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a
BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
 A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
 The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery. However, the
BETWEEN operator can be used within the subquery.

Subqueries with the SELECT Statement

Subqueries are most frequently used with the SELECT statement. The basic syntax
is as follows:

SELECT column_name [, column_name ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
WHERE column_name OPERATOR
122 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

(SELECT column_name [, column_name ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE])
40. SQL – Sub Queries
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, let us check the following subquery with a SELECT statement.

SQL> SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 4500) ;

This would produce the following result.

+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+

Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

Subqueries also can be used with INSERT statements. The INSERT statement uses
the data returned from the subquery to insert into another table. The selected data
123 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

in the subquery can be modified with any of the character, date or number
functions.

The basic syntax is as follows.

INSERT INTO table_name [ (column1 [, column2 ]) ]

SELECT [ *|column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[ WHERE VALUE OPERATOR ]

Example
Consider a table CUSTOMERS_BKP with similar structure as CUSTOMERS table.
Now to copy the complete CUSTOMERS table into the CUSTOMERS_BKP table,
you can use the following syntax.

SQL> INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS_BKP

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS) ;

Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either
single or multiple columns in a table can be updated when using a subquery with
the UPDATE statement.
The basic syntax is as follows:

UPDATE table
SET column_name = new_value
[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Example
124 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of

CUSTOMERS ntable. The following example updates SALARY by 0.25 times in the
CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27.
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );
This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the
following records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 125.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 2125.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Subqueries with the DELETE Statement

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any
other statements mentioned above.
The basic syntax is as follows.

DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME

[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Example
Assuming, we have a CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is a backup of the
CUSTOMERS table. The following example deletes the records from the
CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27.
125 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );

This would impact two rows and finally the CUSTOMERS table would have the
following records.
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
A sequence is a set of integers 1, 2, 3, ... that are generated in order on demand.
Sequences are frequently used in databases because many applications require
each row in a table to contain a unique value and sequences provide an easy way
to generate them.
This chapter describes how to use sequences in MySQL.

Using AUTO_INCREMENT column

The simplest way in MySQL to use sequences is to define a column as
AUTO_INCREMENT and leave the rest to MySQL to take care.
Example
Try out the following example. This will create a table and after that it will insert a
few rows in this table where it is not required to give a record ID because its auto-
incremented by MySQL.
mysql> CREATE TABLE INSECT
-> (
-> id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
-> PRIMARY KEY (id),
126 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

-> name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, # type of insect

-> date DATE NOT NULL, # date collected
-> origin VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL # where collected
);
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.02 sec)

mysql> INSERT INTO INSECT (id,name,date,origin) VALUES

-> (NULL,'housefly','2001-09-10','kitchen'),
-> (NULL,'millipede','2001-09-10','driveway'),
-> (NULL,'grasshopper','2001-09-10','front yard');
Query OK, 3 rows affected (0.02 sec)
Records: 3 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0

mysql> SELECT * FROM INSECT ORDER BY id;

+----+-------------+------------+------------+
| id | name | date | origin |
+----+-------------+------------+------------+
| 1 | housefly | 2001-09-10 | kitchen |
| 2 | millipede | 2001-09-10 | driveway |
| 3 | grasshopper | 2001-09-10 | front yard |
+----+-------------+------------+------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Renumbering an Existing Sequence

There may be a case when you have deleted many records from a table and you
want to re-sequence all the records. This can be done by using a simple trick, but
you should be very careful to do this and check if your table is having a join with
another table or not.
If you determine that resequencing an AUTO_INCREMENT column is unavoidable,
the way to do it is to drop the column from the table, then add it again.
The following example shows how to renumber the id values in the insect table
using this technique.

mysql> ALTER TABLE INSECT DROP id;

mysql> ALTER TABLE insect
-> ADD id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT FIRST,
127 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

-> ADD PRIMARY KEY (id);

Starting a Sequence at a Particular Value

By default, MySQL will start the sequence from 1, but you can specify any other
number as well at the time of table creation.
The following code block has an example where MySQL will start sequence from
100.

mysql> CREATE TABLE INSECT

-> (
-> id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT = 100,
-> PRIMARY KEY (id),
-> name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, # type of insect
-> date DATE NOT NULL, # date collected
-> origin VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL # where collected
);
Alternatively, you can create the table and then set the initial sequence value with
ALTER TABLE.
mysql> ALTER TABLE t AUTO_INCREMENT = 100;

There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table.
While fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only unique records
instead of fetching duplicate records.
The SQL DISTINCT keyword, which we have already discussed is used in
conjunction with the SELECT statement to eliminate all the duplicate records and
by fetching only the unique records.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a DISTINCT keyword to eliminate duplicate records is as
follows.
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example
128 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
First, let us see how the following SELECT query returns duplicate salary records.

SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where the salary of 2000 is coming twice
which is a duplicate record from the original table.
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
Now, let us use the DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and see the
result.

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result where we do not have any duplicate entry.
129 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+