UNIT-III

SWITCHING

In network switching, circuit-switched, datagram, and virtual circuit

networks represent different approaches to establishing and managing
communication paths. Circuit-switched networks dedicate a physical connection
for the duration of a call, while datagram networks treat each packet
independently, and virtual circuit networks combine aspects of both, establishing a
logical path for a session.

1. Circuit-Switched Networks:
 Concept:
A dedicated, end-to-end physical connection is established between two parties
before any data transmission begins. This connection remains active for the
duration of the communication.
 Example:
The traditional telephone network is a prime example. When a call is made, a
physical circuit is established through various switching centers, and it remains
open until the call is terminated.
 Characteristics:
 Connection-oriented: A connection is established before data transfer.
 Dedicated resources: Resources like bandwidth are reserved for the duration of the
connection, even if there is no data being transmitted.
 Guaranteed bandwidth: Once the connection is established, a consistent bandwidth
is available.
 Low latency: Minimal delay due to dedicated path.
 Less efficient: Can be inefficient if the connection is idle for periods of time.
 Example:
Traditional telephone network, ISDN.
2. Datagram Networks:
 Concept:
Each packet, or datagram, is treated as an independent unit of data. Packets may
take different routes to reach the destination and can arrive out of order.
 Example:
 The internet is a datagram network. Each packet sent through the internet may
take a different route depending on network congestion and other factors.
 Characteristics:
 Connectionless: No dedicated path is established before sending data.
 Dynamic routing: Packets are routed dynamically based on available paths.
 No guaranteed delivery: Packets may be lost or arrive out of order.
 More efficient: Resources are used more efficiently as they are allocated on demand.
 Less reliable: Packets may be lost or arrive out of order.
 Example:
The Internet.
3. Virtual Circuit Networks:
 Concept:
A logical path, or virtual circuit, is established between source and destination
before data transmission. While it appears as a dedicated path to the user, the
underlying network may be packet-switched.
 Example:
Frame Relay and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) networks use virtual
circuits.
 Characteristics:
 Connection-oriented: A virtual circuit is established before data transfer.
 Resource reservation: Resources like bandwidth may be reserved for the duration of
the virtual circuit.
 Guaranteed path (for the session): Packets follow the same virtual path within the
network.
 Can be more efficient than circuit switching: Resources can be shared between
different virtual circuits.
 Example:
Frame Relay, ATM.
In essence:
 Circuit switching: is like a dedicated phone line.
 Datagram switching: is like sending letters through the postal system, each with
its own address.
 Virtual circuit switching: is like making a reservation for a specific route on a
public transport system, with the route being reserved for your use but still shared
with others

Block coding in error detection and correction involves dividing data into blocks
and adding redundant bits (parity bits) to each block for error detection and
potentially correction. Linear block codes are a specific type of block code where
the codeword is a linear combination of the message bits. A key parameter is the
minimum distance (d_min) of the code, which determines its error-correcting
capability. A larger d_min generally indicates better error correction.

Introduction to Error Detection and Correction:

Error detection and correction techniques are crucial in digital communication and
storage systems to ensure data integrity. These techniques add redundant
information to the original data, allowing the receiver to detect and potentially
correct errors introduced during transmission or storage.

Block Coding:
Block coding divides data into fixed-size blocks, each encoded with redundant
bits. The added redundancy enables the receiver to identify discrepancies between
the received data and the expected data, thus detecting errors.

Linear Block Codes:

Linear block codes are a subset of block codes where the codewords are generated
by a linear transformation of the message bits. This means that the codeword can
be obtained by multiplying the message vector with a generator matrix.

Key Concepts:
 Generator Matrix (G): A matrix used to encode the message bits into
codewords.
 Parity Check Matrix (H): A matrix used to check the validity of received
codewords.
 Codeword: The encoded block of bits.
 Message Vector (M): The original block of bits.
 Syndrome: A value calculated from the received codeword using the parity check
matrix; it indicates the presence and pattern of errors.
 Minimum Distance (d_min): The smallest Hamming distance between any two
valid codewords. It determines the error-correcting capability of the code.
Example: A Simple Parity Check Code:

A simple parity check code adds a single parity bit to each block of data bits.
 Data: Suppose we have a 4-bit message (k=4)
 Encoding: We add a parity bit (r=1) which is the XOR of all the data bits. If the
number of 1s in the data bits is even, the parity bit is 0; otherwise, it's 1. The
resulting codeword is 5 bits (n=5).
 Example: If the data is 1011, the parity bit would be 1 (since there are three 1s,
which is an odd number), making the codeword 10111.
 Error Detection: If a single bit error occurs during transmission, the parity check
will fail at the receiver, indicating an error. For example, if the received codeword
is 10101, the parity check will fail because the parity bit (1) doesn't match the
parity of the received data bits (0).
 Limitations: This code can only detect single-bit errors and cannot correct them.
Error Correction Capability:
The error correction capability of a linear block code is related to its minimum
distance. A code with a minimum distance of d_min can detect up to d_min -
1 errors and correct up to (d_min - 1) / 2 errors.

Common Linear Block Codes:

 Hamming Codes: Widely used for single error correction.
 Reed-Solomon Codes: Powerful codes used in storage and communication
systems.
 Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) Codes: A class of powerful error-
correcting codes.
Cyclic Codes: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) & Checksum — Explanation
with Example

🔷 What Are Cyclic Codes?

Cyclic codes are a class of linear block codes with the property that if a codeword
is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is still a valid codeword. They are widely
used in digital communications and storage due to their ease of implementation
and error-detecting capabilities.

🔷 What is Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)?

CRC is a popular error-detecting code used to detect accidental changes to raw

data in digital networks and storage devices. It uses polynomial division to
generate a CRC code, which is appended to the data. On the receiving end, the
same division is done to check if an error occurred.

🔷 CRC Terminology:

 Data (D): Original data bits

 Generator Polynomial (G): Predefined binary divisor (e.g., 1011)
 CRC (R): Remainder of division = the redundancy bits
 Codeword: Data + CRC

✅ CRC Example:

Let’s walk through an example.

 Data (D): 1101

 Generator Polynomial (G): 1011 (degree = 3 → append 3 zero bits to data)
🔹 Step 1: Append (n-1) zeros to the data

Data: 1101
Appended zeros (3 zeros for degree-3 polynomial):
→ 1101000

🔹 Step 2: Perform Binary Division (modulo-2)

We divide 1101000 by 1011. The division is similar to long division, but with
XOR instead of subtraction.

yaml
CopyEdit
1011 ) 1101000
XOR
------
0110...
...

Continue this XOR process until you get a remainder of 3 bits (since the degree of
G is 3).

Let’s say the remainder is 100 (actual remainder from this division).

🔹 Step 3: Append CRC to data

Original Data: 1101

CRC (remainder): 100
→ Final Codeword (Data + CRC): 1101100

🔹 Step 4: Receiver Side

Receiver receives 1101100 and divides it by the same generator polynomial 1011.
If remainder = 0, no error.
If remainder ≠ 0, error detected.

🔷 What is a Checksum?

A checksum is a simpler error-detection method. It’s the sum of all data segments
(usually 8- or 16-bit words) using 1's complement arithmetic. The sender
computes this checksum and appends it to the message.

✅ Checksum Example:

Assume 8-bit data chunks:

 Data1: 01010101
 Data2: 00110011

Step 1: Add both:

markdown
CopyEdit
01010101
+ 00110011
-----------
10000110
Step 2: Take 1's complement:

→ 01111001

This is the checksum.

Step 3: Send:

Data1 + Data2 + Checksum = 01010101 00110011 01111001

Step 4: At receiver:

Add all three:

01010101 + 00110011 + 01111001 = 11111111 (ideal result)

If result = all 1s (i.e., 11111111), no error.

If not, error is detected.

1. Framing

Definition:

Framing is the process of dividing the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.

Purpose:

 Helps distinguish data from different messages.

 Detects the beginning and end of each frame.

Common Framing Methods:

 Character Count: Specifies the number of characters in the frame.

 Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing: Uses special flag bytes to indicate frame
boundaries (e.g., 01111110 in HDLC).
 Bit Stuffing: Inserts extra bits to differentiate data from control information.

Example (Bit Stuffing):

Original Data: 01111110 1101111111110 01111110

To prevent confusion with the flag (01111110), a 0 is inserted after five

consecutive 1s in the data:

Framed Data: 01111110 11011111011110 01111110

2. Flow Control

Definition:

Flow control ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver by sending
data too quickly.
Techniques:

 Stop-and-Wait Protocol: Sender waits for acknowledgment after each

frame.
 Sliding Window Protocol: Allows multiple frames to be sent before
requiring an acknowledgment.

Example (Sliding Window):

Assume:

 Window size = 4
 Sender can send frames 0 to 3 without waiting.
 Receiver sends an acknowledgment after each successful frame.

Frames sent: 0, 1, 2, 3
Receiver ACKs: 0, 1, 2, 3
Next frames sent: 4, 5, 6, 7

3. Error Control

Definition:

Error control detects and corrects errors that occur during transmission.

Mechanisms:

 Error Detection:
o Parity Bit
o Checksum
o Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Error Correction:
o Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Go-Back-N ARQ
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Example (Go-Back-N ARQ):

1. Sender sends frames 0 to 4.

 2. Frame 2 is lost.
3. Receiver ACKs frames 0 and 1, but not 2.
4. Timeout occurs.
5. Sender goes back and resends frames 2 to 4.

Noiseless Channel: Stop-and-Wait Protocol (with Example)

1. Overview

The Stop-and-Wait Protocol is one of the simplest data link layer protocols used
in noiseless channels. A noiseless channel means that there are no transmission
errors, so data and acknowledgments are delivered without corruption.

In the Stop-and-Wait Protocol:

 The sender sends one frame at a time.

 After sending, it waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver
before sending the next frame.
 The receiver sends an ACK for each successfully received frame.
 Only one frame is in transit at any given time.

2. Working Steps

1. Sender transmits Frame 0.

2. Sender waits.
3. Receiver receives Frame 0 and sends ACK 0.
4. Sender receives ACK 0.
5. Sender sends Frame 1.
6. ... and so on.

Since the channel is noiseless, we do not consider lost or corrupted frames/ACKs.

3. Example

Let’s walk through an example of 3 data frames (Frame 0, 1, 2):

Time Sender Channel Receiver

T0 Send Frame 0 Frame 0 in transit

T1 Wait for ACK Receive Frame 0

T2 ACK 0 in transit Send ACK 0

T3 Receive ACK 0

T4 Send Frame 1 Frame 1 in transit

T5 Wait for ACK Receive Frame 1

T6 ACK 1 in transit Send ACK 1

T7 Receive ACK 1

T8 Send Frame 2 Frame 2 in transit

... ... ... ...

4. Characteristics

 Simple and easy to implement.

 Efficient only over short or low-latency channels.
 Inefficient on long-distance links (e.g., satellite) due to idle wait time.

Unit-IV

Wired LANs: Standard Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet

Wired LANs (Local Area Networks) typically use Ethernet standards defined by
the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), specifically under the
IEEE 802.3 family. Two commonly used versions are Standard Ethernet (10/100
Mbps) and Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps).

1. Standard Ethernet (10/100 Mbps)

Overview:

 Operates at 10 Mbps (Ethernet) or 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet).

 Based on IEEE 802.3 standard.
 Common types:
o 10BASE-T: 10 Mbps over twisted pair cable.
o 100BASE-TX: 100 Mbps over Cat5 or higher UTP cable.

Characteristics:

 Data Rate: 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps.

 Cable: Twisted Pair (Cat5), Coaxial, or Fiber.
 Topology: Star topology using switches or hubs.
 Max Segment Length: Typically 100 meters with UTP.
 Half or Full Duplex: Earlier systems were half-duplex; modern systems use
full-duplex.

Example Use Case:

A small office with a few PCs connected to a switch using 100BASE-TX over
Cat5e cables. Each computer communicates at 100 Mbps.

2. Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps)

Overview:

 Operates at 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps).

 Defined in IEEE 802.3ab (for copper) and IEEE 802.3z (for fiber).
 Backward compatible with 10/100 Mbps Ethernet.

Common Types:
  1000BASE-T: 1 Gbps over Cat5e or Cat6 (twisted pair).
 1000BASE-SX: Short-range fiber (multimode) up to 550m.
 1000BASE-LX: Long-range fiber (single-mode) up to 10 km.

Characteristics:

 Higher speed: 10x faster than Fast Ethernet.

 Full Duplex only.
 Switch-based: Used with modern smart/managed switches.
 Cable: Cat5e/Cat6 for copper; multimode or single-mode fiber for long
distances

✅ What is Wireless LAN (WLAN)?

A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network that uses wireless

communication to connect devices instead of using cables. It allows devices like
laptops, smartphones, printers, and tablets to communicate within a limited area
like a home, office, or campus.

✅ Bluetooth as a Wireless LAN Technology

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication standard primarily used for

connecting personal devices. Although it's not a typical WLAN technology (like
Wi-Fi), it can be used to form a small, ad hoc LAN—particularly in Personal
Area Networks (PANs).

🔹 Key Features of Bluetooth in LAN Context:

 Range: ~10 meters (up to 100 meters in Class 1 devices)

 Speed: Up to 3 Mbps (Bluetooth 2.0); newer versions are faster
 Topology: Point-to-point or Piconet (1 master, up to 7 slaves)
 Use Case: Suitable for small-scale LANs, quick data transfer, or temporary
connections

✅ Example: Bluetooth Connecting LAN

Scenario: A group of students sharing files in a classroom via Bluetooth

Devices:

 3 laptops with Bluetooth

 2 smartphones
 1 wireless printer

Steps:

1. All devices enable Bluetooth.

2. One laptop acts as the master (central node).
3. Other devices (slaves) pair with the master to form a Piconet.
4. Devices communicate via Bluetooth for:
o Sharing files
o Printing documents
o Chatting using Bluetooth-based apps

Outcome:

This forms a temporary wireless LAN using Bluetooth—suitable for short-term

communication among nearby devices without needing Wi-Fi or cables.

Connecting Devices: Overview

These are hardware components used to connect network devices and manage the
flow of data in a LAN (Local Area Network).

1️⃣ Passive Hub

🔸 Definition:

A passive hub is a simple device that physically connects devices in a network. It

does not amplify or regenerate the signal — it simply splits the signal and sends
it to all ports.

🔹 Characteristics:

 No power required
 Works like a cable splitter
 No signal boosting or regeneration
  Cannot extend network range

📘 Example:

You have 3 computers in a small office. You use a passive hub to connect them
with Ethernet cables. When one computer sends a signal, the passive hub simply
splits and sends it to all 3 ports — even if only one device needs the data.

2️⃣ Repeater

🔸 Definition:

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it, and

retransmits it. It is used to extend the distance over which a signal can travel in a
network.

🔹 Characteristics:

 Needs power
 Amplifies and regenerates signals
 Used to combat signal degradation over long distances

📘 Example:

In a large building, a network cable from a computer to a switch is 150 meters

long. Signal quality drops over that distance. A repeater is placed halfway (75
meters) to boost and regenerate the signal so it reaches the switch clearly.

3️⃣ Active Hub

🔸 Definition:

An active hub is like a powered version of a passive hub. It not only splits the
signal but also amplifies and regenerates it before forwarding to other devices.

🔹 Characteristics:

 Requires power
  Improves signal strength
 Can work like a repeater with multiple ports

📘 Example:

In a medium-sized office, an active hub connects 5 computers. When one

computer sends data, the hub boosts the signal and sends it to all ports. This
ensures all devices receive strong signals, even if cables are long or data quality is
degraded.

1. Bridge

🔸 Definition:

A bridge connects and filters traffic between two LAN segments. It operates at
Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.

🔹 Functions:

 Filters traffic based on MAC addresses

 Reduces network collisions
 Doesn't understand IP addresses

📘 Example:

You have two departments (HR and Finance) using Ethernet. A bridge connects
both segments and only forwards data if it's meant for a device on the other side.

2. Two-Layer Switch (Layer 2 Switch)

🔸 Definition:

A Layer 2 switch works like a multiport bridge. It uses MAC addresses to

forward data between devices.

🔹 Functions:

 Operates at Layer 2
 Learns MAC addresses and builds a MAC table
 Efficient traffic forwarding within a LAN
📘 Example:

In an office with 20 computers, a Layer 2 switch connects them. It sends data only
to the intended device, improving speed compared to a hub.

3. Router

🔸 Definition:

A router connects multiple networks and routes data based on IP addresses. It

operates at Layer 3 (Network Layer).

🔹 Functions:

 Connects LAN to WAN (e.g., internet)

 Uses IP routing tables
 Can provide DHCP, NAT, firewall, etc.

Example:

Your home router connects your local Wi-Fi network to your ISP. It uses IP
addresses to send your Google search to the correct web server.

4. Three-Layer Switch (Multilayer Switch)

🔸 Definition:

A three-layer switch (or Layer 3 switch) combines switching (Layer 2) and

routing (Layer 3) capabilities in one device.

🔹 Functions:

 Forwards data using MAC and IP addresses

 Used in large LANs with VLANs
 Faster than a router for internal routing

📘 Example:
In a university, different departments have VLANs. A Layer 3 switch routes traffic
between VLANs within the same switch, eliminating the need for a separate
router.

5. Gateway

🔸 Definition:

A gateway connects networks that use different protocols. It works at all layers
of the OSI model.

🔹 Functions:

 Protocol translation (e.g., TCP/IP to AppleTalk)

 Converts data formats
 Often used between LAN and mainframe or cloud apps

📘 Example:

An email system using SMTP communicates with a legacy system using X.400. A
gateway translates the protocols so the two systems can talk.

Network Layer: Internet Protocol

The Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model is responsible for:

 Logical addressing (IP addresses)

 Routing data from source to destination across networks
 Packet forwarding

The primary protocol used at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP) —
specifically IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

🔹 Features:

 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1)

  About 4.3 billion unique addresses
 Widely used but running out of address space

📘 Example:

A home computer might be assigned the IPv4 address 192.168.0.5 on a local

network.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

🔹 Features:

 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)

 Supports ~340 undecillion addresses (virtually unlimited)
 Built-in support for security (IPsec)
 No need for NAT (Network Address Translation)

📘 Example:

A web server might use an IPv6 address like:

2400:cb00:2048:1::c629:d7a2

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

Since IPv4 addresses are almost exhausted, the world is slowly moving toward
IPv6. But the transition is gradual because many systems still rely on IPv4.

🔁 Transition Mechanisms:

1. Dual Stack – Devices run both IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously.

o ✅ Modern OS and routers support this.
o 📘 Example: A smartphone can access IPv4-only and IPv6-only
websites using dual stack.
2. Tunneling – Encapsulates IPv6 packets inside IPv4 packets to cross IPv4
networks.
o 📘 Example: A computer sends an IPv6 packet through an IPv4
internet using 6to4 tunneling.
 3. Translation (NAT64 / DNS64) – Translates between IPv6 and IPv4 when
one side doesn't support both.
o 📘 Example: A user on IPv6 accesses an old IPv4-only website via a
translation gateway.

UNIT-V

Network Layer: Delivery, Forwarding and Routing

The Network Layer is responsible for host-to-host delivery of packets, meaning it
handles the process of moving data from the source to the destination across
networks. This involves two key aspects: delivery (the overall process of getting
the packet to its destination) and forwarding (the specific process within a router of
choosing the next hop to get closer to the destination).

Delivery in the network layer refers to the mechanism by which packets are
transferred across the physical networks. There are two ways this can happen:
 Direct Delivery:
Occurs when the source and destination are on the same physical network. The
sender can directly transmit the packet to the destination using its network
address.
 Indirect Delivery:
Happens when the source and destination are on different networks. In this case,
the packet is forwarded from one router to another until it reaches a router
connected to the same network as the destination.

Forwarding is the process within a router that determines the next hop (the next
router or the destination host) for a packet to reach its destination. Routers use
routing tables to make these forwarding decisions. These tables contain
information about network addresses and the corresponding next hop to reach
those addresses.
 Function: Physically moves packets from one network interface to another based
on the routing table.
 Process: Uses forwarding tables (often derived from routing tables) to quickly
look up the correct outgoing interface for a packet.
 Location: Implemented in the data plane of network devices, such as routers.
 Analogy: Following the directions on the map to reach a specific location.

Routing and forwarding are two fundamental processes in network

communication, often confused but distinct in their roles. Routing is the process of
determining the optimal path for data packets to travel from a source to a
destination across a network. It involves using routing algorithms and protocols to
 build and maintain routing tables that map network destinations to specific
paths. Forwarding, on the other hand, is the actual act of moving a packet from an
incoming interface to the appropriate outgoing interface on a router, based on the
information in the routing table.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Routing:
 Function: Determines the best path for data packets across the network.
 Process: Uses routing algorithms (like Dijkstra's algorithm or RIP, OSPF) and
protocols (like BGP) to calculate paths and populate routing tables.
 Location: Typically implemented in the control plane of network devices, such as
routers.
 Analogy: Building a map and providing directions.

Unicast routing protocols

Unicast routing protocols are used to find the best path for forwarding data packets
from a single source to a single destination in a network. They are a fundamental
part of the network layer and are crucial for communication in both small and large
networks. Key protocols include RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and BGP.

Types of Unicast Routing Protocols:

 Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):
 Used for routing within a single autonomous system (AS), which is a network
under a single administrative control.

 Distance Vector Protocols: These protocols exchange routing information with their
neighbors, and routers make routing decisions based on the information
received. Examples include RIP and IGRP (now largely replaced by EIGRP).
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A simple protocol that uses hop count as a
metric, but it has limitations like a maximum hop count and slow convergence.
 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): A Cisco-proprietary
protocol that combines features of both distance vector and link-state protocols,
offering better performance and scalability.
 Link-State Protocols: These protocols flood the network with information about the
network topology. Routers then use this information to calculate the shortest path to
each destination. Examples include OSPF and IS-IS.
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A widely used protocol known for its scalability
and efficiency in large networks.
 IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System): Similar to OSPF, but uses
different terminology and is often used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
 Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):
Used for routing between different autonomous systems.
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The protocol used on the internet to exchange
routing information between different networks (ASs).
 How Unicast Routing Works:
1. 1. Path Calculation:
Routing protocols use algorithms (like Dijkstra's algorithm for link-state
protocols) to determine the best path to a destination based on metrics like hop
count, bandwidth, or delay.
2. 2. Routing Table:
Each router maintains a routing table that lists the best paths to different
networks.
3. 3. Packet Forwarding:
When a router receives a packet, it consults its routing table to find the next hop
(the next router) towards the destination and forwards the packet accordingly.
Key Concepts:
 Autonomous System (AS): A collection of networks under a single administrative
authority.
 Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP): A routing protocol used within an AS.
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): A routing protocol used between ASs.
 Distance Vector: A routing protocol where routers share their routing tables with
their neighbors.
  Link State: A routing protocol where routers share information about the network
topology.
Examples of Unicast Routing Protocols in Action:
 Within a large enterprise network:
OSPF might be used to manage routing within the company's own network, while
BGP might be used to exchange routing information with other networks or ISPs.
 Between networks:
BGP is the primary protocol used to exchange routing information between
different networks on the internet.

Distance vector routing

Distance vector routing is a dynamic routing protocol where routers exchange

routing information with their neighbors to determine the best paths to network
destinations. Each router maintains a table listing the distance (cost) to each
destination and the next hop router. Periodically, routers share their routing tables
with their neighbors, and they update their own tables based on the received
information. The algorithm commonly used for distance vector routing is the
Bellman-Ford algorithm.

Key aspects of distance vector routing:

 Routing Tables:
Routers maintain routing tables that map destinations to the cost of reaching them
and the next hop router.
 Neighbor Exchange:
Routers share their routing tables with their directly connected neighbors.
 Distance Calculation:
Routers use the Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate the shortest paths based on
the received routing information.
 Periodic Updates:
Routing information is exchanged periodically to reflect changes in the network
topology.
 Slow Convergence:
 Distance vector routing can be slow to converge, meaning it can take some time
for routers to agree on the best paths after a network change.

 Count-to-Infinity Problem:
In some scenarios, distance vector routing can be prone to the "count-to-infinity"
problem, where routes can oscillate and take a long time to stabilize after a
network change.
Examples of distance vector routing protocols:
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP): A widely used distance vector protocol,
particularly in smaller networks.
 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): A Cisco proprietary distance vector
protocol.
Advantages of distance vector routing:
 Simplicity: Distance vector routing is relatively simple to implement and
understand.
 Low Resource Requirements: It doesn't require significant resources like
processing power or memory, making it suitable for smaller networks.
Disadvantages of distance vector routing:
 Slow Convergence:
As mentioned, convergence can be slow, and the count-to-infinity problem can
occur.
 Larger Routing Tables:
Distance vector protocols can lead to larger routing tables compared to link-state
protocols.
 Vulnerability to Routing Loops:
The protocol is susceptible to routing loops, where packets can get trapped in
cycles and not reach their destination.
 Link-state routing

Link-state routing is a dynamic routing protocol where each router maintains a

map of the entire network topology, rather than just its neighbors. This is achieved
by each router flooding link-state advertisements (LSAs) throughout the network,
ensuring all routers have the same view of the network. Routers then use this
information to calculate the shortest path to all destinations using algorithms like
Dijkstra's.
Key Concepts:
 Link-State Advertisements (LSAs):
Routers generate and distribute LSAs containing information about their directly
connected links and their costs.
 Flooding:
LSAs are propagated to all routers in the network, ensuring each router receives a
copy of the topology information.
 Network Topology:
Each router builds a complete map of the network based on the received LSAs.
 Shortest Path Calculation:
Routers utilize algorithms like Dijkstra's to determine the shortest path to all
destinations based on the network topology.
 Convergence:
Link-state routing generally has faster convergence (the time it takes for all
routers to agree on the best paths) compared to distance-vector routing, especially
in large networks.
Advantages:
 Faster Convergence:
Link-state protocols converge more quickly than distance-vector protocols
because they use a more complete view of the network.
 Potential for Increased Bandwidth Usage:
Flooding LSAs can consume bandwidth, especially during initial setup or when
the network topology changes frequently.
Examples of Link-State Routing Protocols:
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): A widely used link-state routing protocol for
IP networks.
 Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS): Another popular link-state
protocol, often used in larger networks.

Current Trends in Computer Networks (2024-2025)

1. 5G & Private 5G Networks

o High-speed, low-latency mobile communication.
o Used in smart cities, autonomous vehicles, IoT, and enterprise
environments.
2. Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
o Network control is decoupled from forwarding functions.
o Enables dynamic, manageable, and cost-effective networks.
3. Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
o Replaces traditional hardware (e.g., firewalls, routers) with virtual
machines.
o Promotes scalability and flexibility in data centers.
4. Wi-Fi 6 & Wi-Fi 6E
o Faster speeds, improved capacity, and lower latency.
 o Crucial for high-density environments like stadiums and campuses.
5. Cloud Networking
o Increased reliance on cloud-based services (AWS, Azure, GCP).
o Hybrid and multi-cloud networking becoming mainstream.
6. Edge Computing
o Processing data closer to the source (IoT, sensors).

🚀 Future Trends in Computer Networks (2025 and Beyond)

1. 6G Development
o Target speeds of up to 1 Tbps with ultra-low latency.
o Expected by 2030, enabling real-time holograms, tactile internet, etc.
2. Autonomous Networks
o Self-configuring, self-optimizing, and self-healing networks using AI.
o Driven by large-scale automation and orchestration tools.
3. Terahertz Communication
o High-frequency bands beyond 5G for ultra-fast wireless
communication.
o Suitable for VR/AR and massive data transmission.
4. Network Slicing
o Dedicated virtual networks over shared physical infrastructure.
o Used in 5G and beyond to tailor services for different use cases (e.g.,
healthcare vs. gaming).
5. Space-Based Internet
o Satellite constellations (e.g., Starlink, Kuiper) for global coverage.
o May disrupt traditional telecom in underserved regions.
6. Post-Quantum Cryptography
o Algorithms resistant to quantum attacks.
o Becoming standard as quantum computing evolves.
7. Green Networking
o Energy-efficient protocols and hardware.
o Sustainability becoming a priority due to climate concerns.
8. Blockchain-Based Networking
o Decentralized DNS, secure

5G Network

🔹 Salient Features of 5G
 1. High Speed
o Up to 10 Gbps (10x faster than 4G).
2. Ultra-Low Latency
o As low as 1 millisecond, ideal for real-time applications.
3. Massive Device Connectivity
o Supports 1 million devices per square km – perfect for IoT.
4. Improved Reliability
o Near 100% uptime, critical for emergency or industrial use.
5. Enhanced Capacity & Coverage
o Efficient use of spectrum and support for dense urban areas.
6. Energy Efficient
o Optimized for longer battery life and reduced power consumption.
7. Network Slicing
o Enables creation of custom virtual networks for different use cases.

⚙️5G Technology Components

1. Millimeter Waves (mmWave)

o Operates at 30–300 GHz frequencies.
o High bandwidth but shorter range.
2. Massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
o Uses multiple antennas to send/receive more data simultaneously.
3. Beamforming
o Directs signals to devices instead of broadcasting in all directions.
4. Small Cells
o Dense deployment of small towers boosts local performance.
5. Network Slicing
o Logical separation of networks on the same infrastructure.
6. Edge Computing
o Moves data processing closer to the source/device to reduce latency.

📱 Applications of 5G (With Examples)

Sector Application Example

Healthcare Remote surgery, telemedicine A surgeon performs a robotic

 Sector Application Example

surgery remotely.

Autonomous vehicles, traffic 5G enables self-driving cars to

Transportation
monitoring react instantly.

Smart traffic lights, surveillance, Real-time traffic rerouting in

Smart Cities
waste management smart cities.

Industrial automation, remote Robots in smart factories using

Manufacturing
maintenance 5G for control.

Gaming & Cloud gaming, immersive Streaming VR games with no

AR/VR experiences lag (e.g., via Meta).

Students attend AR-based

Education Virtual classrooms, remote labs
science labs remotely.

Smart irrigation, drone Drones analyze crop health in

Agriculture
monitoring real time.

Watching live sports events in

Entertainment 8K live streaming, VR concerts
VR in real time.

5G Network: Advanced Features

1. Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB)

o High-speed internet for HD video streaming, VR/AR, etc.
2. Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC)
o Supports mission-critical apps like remote surgery and autonomous
vehicles.
3. Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC)
o Connects millions of IoT devices efficiently.
4. Network Slicing
o Creates multiple virtual networks on a shared physical infrastructure,
tailored to different needs.
 5. Edge Computing Integration
o Processes data close to the user/device, reducing latency and load on
central servers.
6. Beamforming and Massive MIMO
o Increases coverage and network efficiency with directional data
transmission.
7. Energy Efficiency Optimization
o Designed to consume less energy per bit of data transferred.

✅ Advantages of 5G
Advantage Explanation

🌐 Faster Data Speeds Up to 10–20 times faster than 4G.

Ideal for real-time applications (e.g., gaming, remote

🕒 Low Latency
surgery).

Supports dense environments like stadiums and smart

📶 Higher Capacity
cities.

Reduces energy consumption in IoT and mobile

🔌 Energy Efficient
devices.

📱 Better Connectivity Supports more simultaneous device connections.

🔧 Reliable
Stable and consistent connections for critical services.
Communication

Works seamlessly with AI, IoT, and automation

🧠 Smart Integration
technologies.

❌ Disadvantages of 5G
Disadvantage Explanation

Requires large investments in new infrastructure

💸 High Deployment Cost
(towers, devices).
 Disadvantage Explanation

mmWave signals have poor penetration and short

📡 Limited Range
coverage areas.

🏗️Infrastructure Upgrade Needs dense small cell deployment, especially in cities.

More connected devices → larger attack surface for

🔒 Security Concerns
cyber threats.

Older devices are not 5G-compatible; upgrades

📶 Device Compatibility
required.

🌍 Urban-Rural Divide Limited availability in rural or remote areas

Common Uses & Applications

✅ 1. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

Use: Short-range wireless internet access in homes, offices, and public places.

Applications:

 Home internet access (laptops, smartphones)

 Wireless printers and smart TVs
 Public Wi-Fi hotspots (airports, cafes)
 Educational institutions for online learning

✅ 2. WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

Use: Long-range wireless broadband for areas where cable/DSL is unavailable.

Applications:

 Rural internet service

 Wireless backhaul for cellular networks
 Connectivity during disaster recovery or in remote areas
 Alternative to fiber/cable broadband
✅ 3. Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)

Use: Wireless communication using LED light instead of radio waves.

Applications:

 Internet in hospitals (no electromagnetic interference)

 Underwater communication (where Wi-Fi fails)
 Smart lighting systems in homes and offices
 Internet in aircraft cabins (safe and high-speed)

🔁 Li-Fi vs Wi-Fi Comparison

Feature Wi-Fi Li-Fi

Technology Uses radio frequency Uses visible light (LEDs)

Can reach up to 100 Gbps (in lab

Speed Up to several Gbps
tests)

Coverage Limited to line-of-sight (few

Up to 100 meters
Area meters)

No RF interference; suitable for

Interference Susceptible to RF interference
hospitals

Penetration Can pass through walls Cannot pass through walls

Lower (can be intercepted via Higher (light doesn’t penetrate

Security
RF) walls)

General home, office, public Environments where RF is

Use Case
internet restricted