Class XI – Artificial Intelligence

Unit 3 - Chapter 1: Matrices

Instructor: Saptarshi Jana

06-07-2025

1. Introduction to Matrices
An m-by-n matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or functions arranged in m rows and n columns,
enclosed in square brackets [ ] or, parentheses () (maintain consistency of the bracket whichever you
choose). The individual numbers in a matrix are known as its elements or entries.

Notation: A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix (read as “m by n”).
It is called the order of the matrix.
Example:
 
1 3
A = 2 4 is a matrix of order 3 × 2.
5 6
The first row has elements 1 and 3, the second row has elements 2 and 4, and the third row has
elements 5 and 6. The first column has elements 1, 2 and 5; the second column has elements 3, 4
and 6.
A useful notation for writing a general m-by-n matrix A is
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A =  ..
 
.. . . .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn
Here, the matrix element of A in the ith row and the jth column is denoted as aij .

2. Types of Matrices
Column and row matrices are especially important and are referred to as vectors. A column vector
is typically an n × 1 matrix, and a row vector is a 1 × n matrix.
• Row Matrix: A matrix with only one row.
 
A= 4 5 6

• Column Matrix: A matrix with only one column.

 
3
A = 7

9

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 • Square Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows equals the number of columns.
 
1 3
A=
2 4

• Diagonal Matrix: A diagonal matrix is a square matrix and it has its only nonzero elements
on the diagonal. For example,  
5 0
D=
0 8

• Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal.
 
7 0
S=
0 7

• Identity Matrix (I): The identity matrix, denoted by I, is a square matrix (number of rows
equals number of columns) with ones down the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
 
1 0
I=
0 1

• Zero (Null) Matrix: The zero matrix, denoted by 0, can be any size and is a matrix consisting
of all zero elements.  
0 0
Z=
0 0

3. Matrix Operations
A. Addition of Matrices
Two matrices can be added if they have the same dimensions. Addition proceeds element by element.
For example,
   
1 3 5 7
A= , B=
2 4 6 8
   
1+5 3+7 6 10
A+B = =
2+6 4+8 8 12

B. Subtraction of Matrices
For two matrices to be subtracted, they must have the same dimensions (or order). This means
they must have the same number of rows and the same number of columns. Subtract corresponding
elements. If their dimensions are different, subtraction is not defined. For example,
   
1−5 3−7 −4 −4
A−B = =
2−6 4−8 −4 −4

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C. Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices can be multiplied if the number of columns in the first equals the number of rows in
the second. In other words, an m-by-n matrix on the left can only be multiplied by an n-by-k matrix
on the right. The resulting matrix will be m-by-k. In general, an element in the resulting product
matrix, say in row i and column j, is obtained by multiplying and summing the elements in row i of
the left matrix with the elements in column j of the right matrix.
   
1 3 2 0
A= , B=
2 4 1 2
   
(1 · 2 + 3 · 1) (1 · 0 + 3 · 2) 5 6
AB = =
(2 · 2 + 4 · 1) (2 · 0 + 4 · 2) 8 8

Scalar multiplication: Matrices can also be multiplied by a scalar. The rule is to just multiply
every element of the matrix. For example,
   
1 3 k 3k
k =
2 4 2k 4k

0.1 Key Properties of Matrix Multiplication.

• Matrix multiplication is not commutative: AB ̸= BA in general.

• Matrix multiplication is associative: (AB)C = A(BC)

D. Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its rows and columns. The transpose of a
matrix A, denoted by AT and spoken as A-transpose. That is,
 
  1 4
1 2 3
A= ⇒ AT = 2 5
4 5 6
3 6
Evidently, A is 2-by-3 tand AT is 3-by-2. In other words, we write aTij = aji

Key Properties of Matrix Transposes

The transpose operation on matrices, denoted by a superscript T , possesses several fundamental
properties. Two straightforward and easily verifiable facts are:
• The transpose of a transpose returns the original matrix: (AT )T = A.

• The transpose of a sum of matrices is the sum of their transposes: (A + B)T = AT + B T .

A more intricate, yet crucial, property concerns the transpose of a matrix product. When trans-
posing the product of two matrices, the result is the product of their individual transposes, but with
the order of multiplication reversed. This is expressed as:

(AB)T = B T AT

Furthermore, the transpose operation helps define special types of square matrices:

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 • A square matrix A is deemed symmetric if it is equal to its own transpose, i.e., AT = A.
• Conversely, a square matrix A is considered skew-symmetric if its transpose is equal to its
negative, i.e., AT = −A.
To illustrate, a general 3 × 3 symmetric matrix takes the form:
 
a b c
b d e
c e f
Notice that elements across the main diagonal are identical (aij = aji ).
In contrast, a general 3 × 3 skew-symmetric matrix appears as:
 
0 b c
−b 0 d
−c −d 0
For skew-symmetric matrices, the diagonal elements must be zero, and elements across the main
diagonal are negations of each other (aij = −aji ).

Summary
Matrices are fundamental in mathematics and have practical applications in computer science,
physics, engineering, economics, and artificial intelligence. Understanding matrix types and opera-
tions is essential for solving linear equations, modeling systems, and performing various computations
efficiently.

Exercise Problems
Identify Matrix Type
 
0 0
a) A= : Zero matrix and square matrix.
0 0
 
b) B = 5 : Scalar matrix and square matrix (singleton matrix).
 
3 0
c) C= : Scalar matrix (since diagonal and all same).
0 3
 
d) D = 1 2 3 : Row matrix.

Matrix Operations
(
1 if i = j
1. Write down a 3 × 3 matrix with elements defined as follows: aij =
0 if i ̸= j
 
1 0 0
This defines the identity matrix: A = 0 1 0

0 0 1

4
  
1 2 3
2. What is the order of the matrix A = ?
4 5 6
The order of matrix A is 2 × 3 (2 rows, 3 columns).

3. Write
 an example
 of a row matrix.
R= 7 8 9
 
4. Whatis the transpose of A = 2 4 ?
2
AT =
4
 
3 0
5. State whether the following is a scalar matrix:
0 3
Yes, it is a scalar matrix as all diagonal elements are equal and non-diagonal elements are zero.
   
1 3 2 1
6. Given: A = , B= ; Find out (i) A + B, (ii) A − B.
2 4 0 5

(i) A + B
   
1+2 3+1 3 4
A+B = =
2+0 4+5 2 9

(ii) A − B
   
1−2 3−1 −1 2
A−B = =
2−0 4−5 2 −1
 
2 −1
7. If C = , find 3C.
4 0 
6 −3
3C =
12 0
   
2 0 1 4
8. Multiply the matrices: A = , B=
1 3 0 2
   
2·1+0·0 2·4+0·2 2 8
AB = =
1·1+3·0 1·4+3·2 1 10

9. Show that the addition of matrices is commutative.

   
1 2 5 6
Given: A = , B=
3 4 7 8
   
1+5 2+6 6 8
A+B = =
3+7 4+8 10 12
   
5+1 6+2 6 8
B+A= =
7+3 8+4 10 12

Since A + B = B + A, matrix addition is commutative.

5
  
1 2 3
10. Find the transpose of the matrix: A =
4 5 6
 
1 4
T
A = 2  5
3 6

11. Symmetric Check:

 
2 4 T2 4
M= , M = ⇒ M = M T , so it is symmetric.
4 2 4 2

Conceptual Questions
 
1 2 3
12. Let, P = Find:
4 5 6
i) P × P T

ii) P T × P

Comment on the dimensions

  of the resulting matrices.
1 4
Solution: P T = 2 5
3 6

i)    
T 1·1+2·2+3·3 1·4+2·5+3·6 14 32
P ·P = =
4·1+5·2+6·3 4·4+5·5+6·6 32 77

ii)    
1 4   17 22 27
1 2 3
P T · P = 2 5 · = 22 29 36
4 5 6
3 6 27 36 45

Dimensions: P · P T is 2 × 2, P T · P is 3 × 3

13. A company tracks monthly sales in two regions using matrices:

   
R1 = 25000 30000 28000 , R2 = 22000 31000 29000

a Represent this data as a 2 × 3 matrix.

b Find the total sales in each month.

c Find the total annual sales in each region.

Solution:
(a) Represent as a 2 × 3 matrix:
 
25000 30000 28000
R=
22000 31000 29000

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(b) Total sales in each month:
Month 1: 25000+22000 = 47000 Month 2: 30000+31000 = 61000 Month 3: 28000+29000 = 57000

(c) Total annual sales in each region:

R1 : 25000 + 30000 + 28000 = 83000 R2 : 22000 + 31000 + 29000 = 82000