Development and history

Early SSDs using RAM and similar technology

The origins of SSDs came from the 1950s using two similar technologies, magnetic core memory and card capacitor read-only store (CCROS). These auxiliary memory units, as they were called at the time, emerged during the era of vacuum tube computers. But with the introduction of cheaper drum storage units, their use was discontinued. Later, in the 1970s and 1980s, SSDs were implemented in semiconductor memory for early supercomputers of IBM, Amdahl and Cray; however, the prohibitively high price of the built-to-order SSDs made them quite seldom used. In the late 1970s, General Instruments produced an electrically alterable ROM (EAROM) which operated somewhat like the later NAND flash memory, but the inability to achieve a 10-year life was not practical and many companies abandoned the technology. In 1976 Dataram started selling a product called BULK CORE providing up to 2MB of solid state storage compatible with DEC and Data General computers. Texas Memory Systems introduced a 16 kilobyte (KB) RAM solid-state drive in 1978 to be used by oil companies for seismic data acquisition. The following year, StorageTek developed the first modern type of solid-state drive. The Sharp PC-5000, introduced in 1983, used 128 kilobyte solid-state storage cartridges, containing bubble memory. In 1984 Tallgrass Technologies Corporation had a tape backup unit of 40 MB with a solid state 20 MB unit built in. The 20 MB unit could be used instead of a hard drive. In September 1986, Santa Clara Systems introduced BatRam, 4 megabyte (MB) mass storage system expandable to 20 MB using 4 MB memory modules. The package included a rechargeable battery to preserve the memory chip contents when the array was not powered. 1987 saw the entry of EMC Corporation into the SSD market, with drives introduced for the mini-computer market. However, by 1993 EMC had exited the SSD market.

Software-based RAM Disks are still used today because they are an order of magnitude faster than the fastest SSD, but they consume CPU resources and cost much more on a per GB basis.

Flash-based SSDs
In 1994, STEC, Inc. bought Cirrus Logics flash controller operation, allowing the company to enter the flash memory business for consumer electronic devices. In 1995, M-Systems introduced flash-based solid-state drives. They had the advantage of not requiring batteries to maintain the data in the memory (required by the prior volatile memory systems), but were not as fast as the DRAM-based solutions. Since then, SSDs have been used successfully as HDD replacements by the military and aerospace industries, as well as for other mission-critical applications. These applications require the exceptional mean time between failures (MTBF) rates that solid-state drives achieve, by virtue of their ability to withstand extreme shock, vibration and temperature ranges. BiTMICRO made a number of introductions and announcements in 1999 around flashbased SSDs including an 18 GB 3.5 in SSD. Fusion-io announced a PCIe-based SSD with 100,000 input/output operations per second (IOPS) of performance in a single card with capacities up to 320 gigabytes in 2007. At Cebit 2009, OCZ demonstrated a 1 terabyte (TB) flash SSD using a PCI Express 8 interface. It achieves a maximum write speed of 654 megabytes per second (MB/s) and maximum read speed of 712 MB/s. In December 2009, Micron Technology announced the world's first SSD using a 6 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) or 600 (MB/s) SATA interface.

Enterprise flash drives

Enterprise flash drives (EFDs) are designed for applications requiring high I/O performance (IOPS), reliability, and energy efficiency. In most cases an EFD is an SSD with a higher set of specifications compared to SSDs that would typically be used in

notebook computers. The term was first used by EMC in January 2008, to help them identify SSD manufacturers who would provide products meeting these higher standards. There are no standards bodies who control the definition of EFDs, so any SSD manufacturer may claim to produce EFDs when they may not actually meet the requirements. Likewise there may be other SSD manufacturers that meet the EFD requirements without being called EFDs.

Architecture and function

The key components of an SSD are the controller and the memory to store the data. The primary memory component in an SSD had been DRAMvolatile memory since they were first developed, but since 2009 it is more commonly NAND flashnon-volatile memory. Other components play a less significant role in the operation of the SSD and vary between manufacturers.

Controller
Every SSD includes a controller that incorporates the electronics that bridge the NAND memory components to the host computer. The controller is an embedded processor that executes firmware-level code and is one of the most important factors of SSD performance. Some of the functions performed by the controller include:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

Error correction (ECC) Wear leveling Bad block mapping Read scrubbing and read disturb management Read and write caching Garbage collection Encryption

The performance of the SSD can scale with the number of parallel NAND flash chips used in the device. A single NAND chip is relatively slow, due to narrow (8/16 bit) asynchronous IO interface, and additional high latency of basic IO operations (typical for SLC NAND, ~25 s to fetch a 4K page from the array to the IO buffer on a read, ~250 s to commit a 4K page from the IO buffer to the array on a write, ~2 ms to erase a 256 kiB block). When multiple NAND devices operate in parallel inside an SSD, the bandwidth scales, and the high latencies can be hidden, as long as enough outstanding operations are pending and the load is evenly distributed between devices. Micron and Intel

initially made faster SSDs by implementing data striping (similar to RAID 0) and interleaving in their architecture. This enabled the creation of ultra-fast SSDs with 250 MB/s effective read/write speeds with the SATA 3 Gb/s interface in 2009. Two years later and continuing to leverage this parallel flash connectivity, SandForce released consumer-grade SATA 6 Gb/s SSD controllers which support 500 MB/s read/write speeds.

Memory
Flash memory-based Most SSD manufacturers use non-volatile NAND flash memory in the construction of their SSDs because of the lower cost compared to DRAM. and the ability to retain the data without a constant power supply, ensuring data persistence through sudden power outages. Flash memory SSDs are slower than DRAM solutions, and some early designs were even slower than HDDs after continued use. This problem was resolved by controllers that came out in 2009 and later. Flash memory-based solutions are typically packaged in standard disk drive form factors (1.8-, 2.5-, and 3.5-inch), or smaller unique and compact layouts because of the compact memory. Lower priced drives usually use multi-level cell (MLC) flash memory, which is slower and less reliable than single-level cell (SLC) flash memory. This can be mitigated or even reversed by the internal design structure of the SSD, such as interleaving, changes to writing algorithms, and higher over-provisioning (more excess capacity) with which the wear-leveling algorithms can work. DRAM-based SSDs based on volatile memory such as DRAM are characterized by ultrafast data access, generally less than 10 microseconds, and are used primarily to accelerate applications that would otherwise be held back by the latency of flash SSDs or traditional HDDs.

DRAM-based SSDs usually incorporate either an internal battery or an external AC/DC adapter and backup storage systems to ensure data persistence while no power is being supplied to the drive from external sources. If power is lost, the battery provides power while all information is copied from random access memory (RAM) to back-up storage. When the power is restored, the information is copied back to the RAM from the backup storage, and the SSD resumes normal operation (similar to the hibernate function used in modern operating systems). SSDs of this type are usually fitted with DRAM modules of the same type used in regular PCs and servers, which can be swapped out and replaced by larger modules. A remote, indirect memory-access disk (RIndMA Disk) uses a secondary computer with a fast network or (direct) Infiniband connection to act like a RAM-based SSD, but the new faster flash memory based SSDs already available in 2009 are making this option not as cost effective.

Cache or buffer
A flash-based SSD typically uses a small amount of DRAM as a cache, similar to the cache in Hard disk drives. A directory of block placement and wear leveling data is also kept in the cache while the drive is operating. Data is not permanently stored in the cache. One SSD controller manufacturer, SandForce, does not use an external DRAM cache on their designs, but still achieve very high performance. Eliminating the external DRAM enables a smaller footprint for the other flash memory components in order to build even smaller SSDs.

Battery or super capacitor

Another component in higher performing SSDs is a capacitor or some form of battery. These are necessary to maintain data integrity such that the data in the cache can be flushed to the drive when power is dropped; some may even hold power long enough to maintain data in the cache until power is resumed. In the case of MLC flash memory, a

problem called lower page corruption can occur when MLC flash memory loses power while programming an upper page. The result is data written previously and presumed safe can be corrupted if the memory is not supported by a super capacitor in the event of a sudden power loss. This problem does not exist with SLC flash memory.

Host interface
The host interface is not specifically a component of the SSD, but it is a key part of the drive. The interface is usually incorporated into the controller discussed above. The interface is generally one of the interfaces found in HDDs. They include:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

Serial ATA Serial attached SCSI (generally found on servers) PCI Express Fibre Channel (almost exclusively found on servers) USB Parallel ATA (IDE) interface (mostly replaced by SATA)

(Parallel) SCSI (generally found on servers; mostly replaced by SAS; last SCSI-based SSD introduced in 2004)

Form factor
The size and shape of any device is largely driven by the size and shape of the components used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and optical drives are designed around the rotating platter or optical disc along with the spindle motor inside. If an SSD is made up of various interconnected integrated circuits (ICs) and an interface connector, then its shape could be virtually anything imaginable because it is no longer limited to the shape of rotating media drives. Some solid state storage solutions come in a larger chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside. They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside the box with a single connector.

Standard HDD form factors

The benefit of using a current HDD form factor would be to take advantage of the extensive infrastructure already in place to mount and connect the drives to the host system. These traditional form factors are known by the size of the rotating media, e.g., 5.25", 3.5", 2.5", 1.8", not by the dimensions of the drive casing.

Box form factors

Many of the DRAM-based solutions use a box that is often designed to fit in a rackmount system. The number of DRAM components required to get sufficient capacity to store the data along with the backup power supplies requires a larger space than traditional HDD form factors. Form factors which were more common to memory modules are now being used by SSDs to take advantage of their flexibility in laying out the components. Some of these include PCIe, mini PCIe, mini-DIMM, MO-297, and many more. The SATADIMM from Viking Modular uses an empty DDR3 DIMM slot on the motherboard to provide power to the drive with a separate SATA connector to provide the data connection back to the computer. The result is an easy to install SSD with a capacity equal to drives that

typically take a full 2.5 in expansion slot. At least one manufacturer, InnoDisk, is producing a drive that sits directly on the SATA connector on the motherboard without any other support or mechanical mount. Some SSDs are based on the PCIe form factor and connect both the data interface and power through the PCIe connector to the host. These drives can use either direct PCIe flash controllers or a PCIe-to-SATA bridge device which then connects to SATA flash controller(s).

Ball grid array form factors

In the early 2000s, a few companies introduced SSDs in Ball Grid Array (BGA) form factors, such as M-Systems (now SanDisk) DiskOnChip and Silicon Storage Technologys NANDrive (now produced by Greenliant Systems), and Memoright's M1000 for use in embedded systems. The main benefits of BGA SSDs are their low power consumption, small chip package size to fit into compact subsystems, and that they can be soldered directly onto a system motherboard to reduce adverse effects from vibration and shock.

Comparison of SSD with hard disk drives

The disassembled components of a hard disk drive (left) and of the PCB and components of a solid-state drive (right) Making a comparison between SSDs and ordinary (spinning) HDDs is difficult. Traditional HDD benchmarks are focused on finding the performance aspects where they are weak, such as rotational latency time and seek time. As SSDs do not spin, or seek, they may show huge superiority in such tests. However, SSDs have challenges with mixed reads and writes, and their performance may degrade over time. SSD testing must start from the (in use) full disk, as the new and empty (fresh out of the box) disk may have much better write performance than it would show after only weeks of use. Most advantages of solid-state disks over traditional hard drives come from the characteristic of data being accessed completely electronically instead of an electromechanical machine. On the other hand, traditional hard drives currently excel by offering much more capacity for the same price. The following table shows a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of both technologies. Comparisons reflect typical characteristics, and may not hold for a specific device. Attribute or characteristic

Solid-state drive

Hard disk drive

Almost Spin-up time

Instantaneous;

nothing May take several seconds. With a

mechanical to "spin up". May need large number of drives, spin-up a few milliseconds to come out of may need to be staggered to limit an automatic power-saving mode. total power drawn. About 0.1 ms - many times faster Ranges from 510 ms due to the than HDDs because data is need to move the heads and wait

Random access

time

accessed directly from the flash for the data to rotate under the memory Generally low because the data can be read directly from any read/write head[58]

Read latency time

location; In applications where Generally

high

since

the

hard disk seeks are the limiting mechanical components require factor, this results in faster boot additional time to get aligned and application launch times (see Amdahl's law). Read performance does not If data is written in a fragmented

Consistent read performance

change based on where data is way, reading back the data will stored on an SSD There is usually very little benefit to reading data sequentially have varying response times

(beyond typical FS block sizes), making fragmentation a void issue File systems on after HDDs may

for SSDs. Defragmentation process fragment

continued

also makes additional writes on operations of erasing and writing Fragmentation the NAND flash cells that already data, especially involving large have a limited cycle life. It is also files. uncertain Therefore periodical

whether defragmentation is required to

defragmentation would arrange maintain ultimate performance. the data in a truly sequential order, as the drive itself can again remap it to various positions. Acoustic levels SSDs have no moving parts and HDDs have moving parts (heads,

make no sound

spindle motor) and have varying levels of sound depending upon model HDDs have many moving parts that are all subject to failure over time Air-forced ventilation is

Mechanical reliability

A lack of moving parts virtually eliminates mechanical breakdowns

SSDs do not usually require any cooling maintenance and they can Maintenance of temperature tolerate higher temperatures than HDDs. High-end enterprise models delivered as add-on cards may include heat sinks to dissipate heat generated by its chips.

recommended for desktop hard drives to avoid build-up of heat. Otherwise, bad sectors on its media can appear later and/or its lifespan will diminish over time. HDDs designed for laptops do not need as much cooling, but heat issues are a matter of concern with them too.

Susceptibility to No flying heads or rotating platters The flying heads and rotating environmental to fail as a result of shock, altitude, platters are generally susceptible factors or vibration to shock, altitude, and vibration

Installation and mounting

As for SSD, as long as it's mounted While installing a hard disk drive, securely to its place, the position one must take care of sufficient and installation mechanism do not cooling and sturdy mounting. have much of impact to its normal Additionally accessories use. Most ordinary SSDs have all dampen vibration, noise to and

components (except for power and mechanical shocks, can be data connectors) encased inside. installed. The printed circuit board

underneath of a HDD is usually exposed and any conductive

material cannot be let to shortcircuit the components or

electronic contact points. Magnetic susceptibility Magnets or magnetic surges can alter data on the media Higher performing HDDs require heavier components than laptop HDDs (which are light, but not as light as SSDs)

No impact on flash memory

The weight of flash memory and Weight and size the circuit board material are very light compared to HDDs

Some flash controllers can have HDDs have multiple heads (one Parallel operation multiple flash chips reading and per writing different platter) but and they share are one

data connected,

simultaneously Flash-based SSDs have a limited number of writes (1-5 million or more) over the life of the drive. Software controllers manage this Write longevity limitation in such a way that drives can last for many decades before failure. SSDs based on DRAM do not have a limited number of writes.

positioning motor.

Magnetic media do not have a similar limited number of writes but are susceptible to eventual mechanical failure.

Secure writing

NAND flash memory cannot be HDDs can overwrite data directly overwritten, but has to be on the drive in any particular

limitations

rewritten to previously erased sector. blocks. If a software encryption program encrypts data already on the SSD, the overwritten data is still unsecured, unencrypted, and accessible (drive-based hardware encryption does not have this problem). Also data cannot be securely erased by overwriting the original file without special "Secure Erase" procedures built into the drive. As of February 2011, NAND flash As of February 2011, HDDs cost SSDs cost about (US)$.902.00 per about (US)$0.05/GB for 3.5 in and GB As of December 2011, SSDs come $0.10/GB for 2.5 in drives

Cost per capacity

Storage capacity

in different sizes up to 2TB but are typically not larger than 64-256GB, due to their high cost per capacity. Less expensive SSDs typically have

As of December 2011, HDDs are typically up to 1TB in capacity but drives up to 4TB are available.

Read/write performance symmetry

write speeds significantly lower HDDs generally have slightly lower than their read speeds. Higher write speeds than their read performing SSDs have a balanced speeds. read and write speed.

Free block

SSD

write

performance impacted by

is HDDs are not affected by free the blocks or the operation (or lack) of

availability and significantly

TRIM

availability of free, programmable the TRIM command blocks. Previously written data blocks that are no longer in use can be reclaimed by TRIM;

however, even with TRIM, fewer free, programmable into blocks reduced

translates performance. High

performance

flash-based High performance HDDs generally require between 12-18 watts; drives designed for notebook

SSDs generally require 1/2 to 1/3 Power consumption the power of HDDs; High

performance DRAM SSDs generally require as much power as HDDs and consume power when the rest of the system is shut down.

computers are typically 2 watts.

Comparison of SSD with memory cards

CompactFlash card used as an SSD While it is true that both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they serve very different markets and purposes. Each has a number of different attributes which are optimized and adjusted to best meet the needs of particular users. Some of these characteristics include power consumption, performance, size, and reliability. SSDs were originally designed for use in a computer system. The first units were intended to replace or augment hard disk drives, so the operating system recognized them as a hard drive. Originally, solid state drives were even shaped and mounted in the computer like hard drives. Later SSDs became smaller and more compact, eventually developing their own unique form factors. The SSD was designed to be installed one time inside the computer and only have it removed when servicing or upgrading it. In contrast, memory cards like CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD), Memory Stick, and xD-Picture Card were all originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, and GPS units. Nearly all memory cards are smaller in size than SSDs and they were engineered to be inserted and removed repeatedly. There are adapters which enable some memory cards like the CF card to interface to a computer as an SSD, but they are not intended to be the primary storage device in the computer. The typical CF card interface is generally 3-4 times slower than is available on SSDs.

Commercialization
Cost and capacity
The technological trend of 2 year 50% decline in costs is no longer possible in NAND flash as it approaches its terminal node. Instead NAND makers anticipate more modest cost declines in the period 2011-2015. Capacities in client SSDs are typically dictated by cost concerns rather than technical limitations of NAND storage.

Availability
Solid-state drive (SSD) technology has been marketed to the military and niche industrial markets since the mid-1990s. Along with the emerging enterprise market, SSDs have been appearing in ultra-mobile PCs and a few lightweight laptop systems, adding significantly to the price of the laptop, depending on the capacity, form factor and transfer speeds. As of 2008, some manufacturers have begun shipping affordable, fast, energy-efficient drives priced at $350 to computer manufacturers. For low-end applications, a USB flash drive may be obtainable for anywhere from $10 to $100 or so, depending on capacity; alternatively, a CompactFlash card may be paired with a CF-to-IDE or CF-to-SATA converter at a similar cost. Either of these requires that write-cycle endurance issues be managed, either by refraining from storing frequently written files on the drive or by using a flash file system. Standard CompactFlash cards usually have write speeds of 7 to 15 MB/s while the more expensive upmarket cards claim speeds of up to 60 MB/s. One of the first mainstream releases of SSD was the XO Laptop, built as part of the One Laptop Per Child project. Mass production of these computers, built for children in developing countries, began in December 2007. These machines use 1,024 MiB SLC NAND flash as primary storage which is considered more suitable for the harsher than normal conditions in which they are expected to be used. Dell began shipping ultraportable laptops with SanDisk SSDs on April 26, 2007. Asus released the Eee

PCsubnotebook on October 16, 2007, and after a successful commercial start in 2007, it was expected to ship several million PCs in 2008, with 2, 4 or 8 gigabytes of flash memory. On January 31, 2008, Apple Inc. released the MacBook Air, a thin laptop with optional 64 GB SSD. The Apple Store cost was $999 more for this option, as compared to that of an 80 GB 4200 RPM hard disk drive.[83] Another option, the LenovoThinkPad X300 with a 64 gigabyte SSD, was announced by Lenovo in February 2008, and is, as of 2008, available to consumers in some countries. On August 26, 2008, Lenovo released ThinkPad X301 with 128GB SSD option which adds approximately $200 US.

The Mtron SSD In 2008, low end netbooks appeared with SSDs. In 2009, SSDs began to appear in laptops. On January 14, 2008, EMC became the first enterprise storage vendor to ship flashbased SSDs into its product portfolio. In late 2008, Sun released the Sun Storage 7000 Unified Storage Systems (codenamed Amber Road), which use both solid state drives and conventional hard drives to take advantage of the speed offered by SSDs and the economy and capacity offered by conventional hard disks. Dell began to offer optional 256 GB solid state drives on select notebook models in January 2009. In May 2009, Toshiba launched a laptop with a 512 GB SSD. As of October 2010, Apple's MacBook Air line carries solid state drives as standard. In December 2010, OCZ RevoDrive X2 PCIe SSD was available in 100GB to 960GB capacities delivering speeds over 740MB/s sequential speeds and random small file writes up to 120,000 IOPS.

In November 2010, Fusion-io released its highest performing SSD drive named ioDrive Octal utilising PCI-Express x16 Gen 2.0 interface with storage space of 5.12TB, read speed of 6.0GB/s, write speed of 4.4GB/s and a low latency of 30 microseconds. It has 1.19M Read 512 byte IOPS and 1.18M Write 512 byte IOPS. In late 2011, computers based on Intel's Ultrabook specifications became available; these specifications dictate that Ultrabooks use an SSD. These are consumer-level devices (unlike many previous Flash offerings aimed at enterprise users), and represent the first widely available consumer computers using SSDs aside from the Macbook Air.

Quality and performance

Disk drive performance characteristics SSD technology is developing rapidly. Most of the performance measurements used on disk drives with rotating media are also used on SSDs. Performance of flash-based SSDs is difficult to benchmark because of the wide range of possible conditions. In a test performed in 2010 by Xssist, using IOmeter, 4 KB random 70% read/30% write, queue depth 4, the IOPS delivered by the Intel X25-E 64 GB G1 started around 10,000 IOPs, and dropped sharply after 8 minutes to 4,000 IOPS, and continued to decrease gradually for the next 42 minutes. IOPS vary between 3,000 to 4,000 from around 50 minutes onwards for the rest of the 8+ hours test run. Write amplification Write amplification is the major reason for the change in performance of an SSD over time. Enterprise grade drives try to avoid this performance variation by increasing over provisioning, and by employing wear-leveling algorithms that move data around only when the drives are not being heavily utilized.

Applications
Until 2009, SSDs were mainly used in those aspects of mission critical applications where the speed of the storage system needed to be as fast as possible. Since flash memory has become a common component of SSDs, the falling prices and increased densities have made it more financially attractive for many other applications. Organizations that can benefit from faster access of system data include equity trading companies, telecommunication corporations, streaming media and video editing firms. The list of applications which could benefit from faster storage is vast. Any company can assess the ROI from adding SSDs to their own applications to best understand if that will be cost effective for them. Flash-based solid-state drives can be used to create network appliances from generalpurpose personal computer hardware. A write protected flash drive containing the operating system and application software can substitute for larger, less reliable disk drives or CD-ROMs. Appliances built this way can provide an inexpensive alternative to expensive router and firewall hardware. SSDs based on an SD card with a live SD operating system are easily write-locked. Combined with a cloud computing environment or other writable medium, to maintain persistence, an OSbooted from a write-locked SD card is robust, rugged, reliable, and impervious to permanent corruption. If the running OS degrades, simply turning the machine off and then on returns it back to its initial virgin uncorrupted state and thus is particularly solid. The SD card installed OS does not require removal of corrupted components since it was write-locked though any written media may need to be restored. In 2011 Intel introduced a caching mechanism for their Z68 chipset (and mobile derivatives) called Smart Response Technology, which allows a SATA SSD to be used as a cache (configurable as write-through or write-back) for a conventional, magnetic hard disk drive. A similar technology is available on HighPoint's RocketHybrid PCIe card.

Hybrid drives (H-HDSs) are based on the same principle, but integrate some amount of flash memory on board of a conventional drive instead of using a separate SSD. The flash layer in these drives can be accessed independently from the magnetic storage by the host using ATA-8 commands, allowing the operating system to manage it. For example Microsoft's ReadyDrive technology explicitly stores portions of the hibernation file in the cache of these drives when the system hibernates, making the subsequent resume faster.

SSD-optimized file systems

There are a number of computer file systems which are optimized for solid-state drives. Some of the more popular or notable are listed below.

Linux systems
The Linux kernel supports the TRIM function starting with version 2.6.33. The ext4 file system is supported when mounted using the "discard" parameter. Linux distributions usually do not set this kind of configuration automatically during installation. The disk utilities (and therefore installation software that make use of them) have the ability to apply proper partition alignment.

Mac OS X
Mac OS X 10.7 (Lion) supports TRIM, as does OS X 10.6.8 Snow Leopard. It is also possible to add support for TRIM to versions earlier than 10.6.8. Along the sheer command being supported, there is however an uncertainty whether it is actually being utilized properly.

Microsoft Windows
Windows 7 Windows 7 is optimized for SSDs as well as for traditional magnetic hard disks. The OS looks for the presence of an SSD and operates differently with that drive. If an SSD is present, Windows 7 will disable disk defragmentation, Superfetch, ReadyBoost, and other boot-time and application prefetching operations. It also includes support for the TRIM command to reduce garbage collection of data which the OS has already determined is no longer valid. Without support for TRIM, the SSD would be unaware of this data being invalid and would unnecessarily continue to rewrite this data during garbage collection causing further wear on the SSD.

Previous versions Versions of Windows prior to Windows 7 are optimized for hard disk drives rather than SSDs. Windows Vista includes ReadyBoost to exploit characteristics of USB-connected flash devices, but for SSDs it only improves the default partition alignment to prevent read-modify-write operations which reduce the speed of the SSD. This is because most SSDs are typically aligned on 4 KB sectors and most OSes are based on 512 byte sectors with the default partition set up unaligned . The proper alignment really does not help the SSD's endurance over the life of the drive, however some Vista operations, if not disabled, can shorten the life of the SSD. Disk defragmentation should be disabled because the location of the file components on an SSD doesn't significantly impact its performance, but moving the files to make them contiguous using the Windows Defrag routine will cause unnecessary write wear on the limited number of P/E cycles on the SSD. The Superfetch feature will not materially improve the performance of the system and causes additional overhead in the system and SSD, although it does not cause wear.

ZFS
Solaris as of version 10 Update 6 (released in October 2008), and recent versions of OpenSolaris and Solaris Express Community Edition can use SSDs as a performance booster for ZFS. A low-latency SSD can be used for the ZFS Intent Log (ZIL), where it is named the SLOG. This is used every time a synchronous write to the disk occurs. An SSD (not necessarily with a low-latency) may also be used for the level 2 Adaptive Replacement Cache (L2ARC), which is used to cache data for reading. When used either alone or in combination, large increases in performance are generally seen.

FreeBSD
In addition to ZFS features described above, UFS supports the TRIM command.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The advantages of the SSD designed on the basis of FRAM over the SSD designed on the basis of Flash memory are as follows:

- three times higher theoretical transfer speed nearing the transfer speed of the ATA interface. The transfer speed of 97 MB/s is preserved independently of the type of the operation single-sector or multi-sector, write or read. With the SSD based on Flash memory the maximum transfer speed is 35 MB/s for multi-sector read operation and it decreases considerably for single-sector write operation.

- the access time is considerably smaller due to the lack of FIFO buffers and buffer memory in the proposed architecture as well as due to the exceptionally simplified architecture of the FRAM block

- the number of re-write cycles is practically unlimited (1013) and in this case it is superfluous to apply different strategies for uniform exploitation of this resource which are employed with the SSD based on Flash memory

- the guaranty period for storage of information in FRAM without any changes is 10 years at a temperature of 850. With Flash memory there is a probability of loss of information due to the action of particles and it is necessary to use schemes for detection and correction of errors.

A disadvantage of FRAM in comparison with Flash memory is the smaller capacity of the separate chips. This necessitates the usage of a larger number of storage elements in the FRAM block.

The positive aspects of the present paper are as follows:

- selection of the storage element has been made by means of which the SSD storage array will be designed. Its internal organization, the interface and the commands to be performed have been specified.

- An architecture of the storage array has been proposed which allows maximum transfer speed of 97 MB/s and access time of 5,28 s to be achieved.

The paper is theoretical and it can serve as a basis for designing a SSD in the future when FRAM with bigger capacity and lower price will be developed.