2.
EARTH-MOVING AND
EXCAVATION PLANT
The selection, management and maintenance of builders’ plant are particularly
important when considered in the context of earth-moving and excavation plant.
Before deciding to use any form of plant for these activities the site conditions
and volume of work entailed must be such that it will be an economic venture.
The difference between plant that is classified as earth-moving equipment and
excavating machines is very slight, because a piece of plant that is designed
primarily to excavate will also be capable of moving the spoil to an attendant
transporting vehicle, and, likewise, machines basically designed to move loose
earth will also be capable of carrying out excavation works to some degree.
To browse through the catalogues of plant manufacturers and hirers to try
and select a particular piece of plant is a bewildering exercise because of the wide
variety of choice available for all classes of plant. Final choice is usually based upon
experience, familiarity with a particular manufacturer’s machines, availability or
personal preference. There are many excellent works of reference devoted entirely
to the analysis of the various machines to aid the would-be buyer or hirer: therefore
in a text of this nature it is necessary only to consider the general classes of plant,
pointing out their intended uses and amplifying this with typical examples of the
various types without claiming that the example chosen is the best of its type but
only representative.
nnn BULLDOZERS AND ANGLEDOZERS
These machines are primarily a high-powered tractor with caterpillar or crawler
tracks and fitted with a mould board or blade at the front for stripping and oversite
excavations up to a depth of 400 mm (depending upon machine specification) by
pushing the loosened material ahead of the machine. For backfilling operations the
angledozer with its mould board set at an angle, in plan, to the machine’s centreline
can be used. Most mould boards can be set at an angle in either the vertical or the
Earth-moving and excavation plant 71
horizontal plane to act as an angledozer, and on some models the leading edge
of the mould board can be fitted with teeth for excavating in hard ground.
These machines can be very large, with mould boards of 1.200 to 4.000 m in width
× 600 mm to 1.200 m in height and a depth of cut up to 400 mm. Most bulldozers
and angledozers are mounted on crawler tracks, although small bulldozers with a
wheeled base are available. The control of the mould board is hydraulic, as shown
in Fig. 2.3.1. In common with other tracked machines one of the disadvantages of
this arrangement is the need for a special transporting vehicle such as a low loader
to move the equipment between sites.
Before any earth-moving work is started a drawing should be produced
indicating the areas and volumes of cut and fill required to enable a programme
to be prepared to reduce machine movements to a minimum. When large quantities
of earth have to be moved on a cut and fill basis to form a predetermined level or
gradient it is good practice to draw up a mass haul diagram indicating the volumes
of earth to be moved, the direction of movement, and the need to import more
spoil or alternatively remove the surplus spoil from site (see Fig. 2.3.2 for a typical
example).
nnn SCRAPERS
This piece of plant consists of a power unit and a scraper bowl, and is used to
excavate and transport soil where surface stripping, site levelling and cut and fill
activities are planned. They are particularly appropriate where large volumes are
encountered over a wide area, typical of civil engineering projects such as airfields
and highways. These machines are capable of producing a very smooth and accurate
formation level, and come in three basic types:
n crawler-drawn scraper;
n two-axle scraper;
n three-axle scraper.
The design and basic operation of the scraper bowl is similar in all three types.
It consists of a shaped bowl with a cutting edge that can be lowered to cut the
top surface of the soil up to a depth of 300 mm. As the bowl moves forward the
loosened earth is forced into the container, and when full the cutting edge is raised
to seal the bowl. To ensure that a full load is obtained, many contractors use a
bulldozer to act as a pusher over the last few metres of scrape. The bowl is emptied
by raising the front apron and ejecting the collected spoil or, on some models, by
raising the rear portion and spreading the collected spoil as the machine moves
forwards.
The crawler-drawn scraper consists of a four-wheeled scraper bowl towed
behind a crawler power unit. The speed of operation is governed by the speed of the
towing vehicle, which does not normally exceed 8 km/h when hauling and 3 km/h
when scraping. For this reason this type of scraper should be used only on small
hauls of up to 300.000 m. The two-axle scraper which has a two-wheeled bowl
pulled by a two-wheeled power unit, has advantages over its four-wheeled power
unit or three-axle counterpart in that it is more manoeuvrable, offers less rolling
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Figure 2.3.1 Typical tractor-powered bulldozer details
Figure 2.3.2 Typical mass haul diagram
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resistance, and has better traction because the engine is mounted closer to the
driving wheels. The three-axle scraper, however, can use its top speed more
frequently, is generally easier to control, and the power unit can be used for other
activities, which is not possible with most two-axle scraper power units. Typical
examples are shown in Fig. 2.3.3. Scraper bowl heaped capacities of the machines
described above range from 5 to 50 m3.
To achieve maximum output and efficiency of scrapers the following should be
considered:
n When working in hard ground the surface should be pre-broken by a ripper or
scarifier, and assistance in cutting should be given by a pushing vehicle. Usually
one bulldozer acting as a pusher can assist three scrapers if the cycle of scrape,
haul, deposit and return is correctly balanced.
n Where possible, the cutting operation should take place downhill to take full
advantage of the weight of the unit.
n Haul roads should be kept smooth to enable the machine to obtain maximum
speeds.
n Recommended tyre pressures should be maintained, otherwise extra resistance to
forward movement will be encountered.
nnn GRADERS
These are similar machines to bulldozers in that they have an adjustable mould
blade either fitted at the front of the machine or slung under the centre of the
machine’s body. They are used for finishing to fine limits large areas of ground
that have been scraped or bulldozed to the required formation level. These
machines can be used only to grade the surface because their low motive power
is generally insufficient to enable them to be used for oversite excavation work.
nnn TRACTOR SHOVEL
This machine, which is sometimes called a loading shovel, is basically a power
unit in the form of a wheeled or tracked tractor with a hydraulically controlled
bucket mounted in front of the vehicle. It is one of the most versatile pieces of
plant available to the building contractor. Its primary function is to scoop up loose
material in the bucket, raise the loaded spoil and manoeuvre into a position to
discharge its load into an attendant lorry or dumper. The tractor shovel is driven
towards the spoil heap with its bucket lowered almost to ground level, and uses
its own momentum to force the bucket to bite into the spoil heap, thus filling the
scoop or bucket.
Instead of the straight cutting edge to the lower lip of the bucket the shovel
can be fitted with excavating teeth, enabling the machine to carry out excavating
activities such as stripping topsoil or reduce-level digging in loose soils. Another
popular version of the tractor shovel is fitted with a 4-in-1 bucket, which enables
the machine to perform the functions of bulldozing, excavating and loading (see
Fig. 2.3.4). Other alternatives to the conventional front-discharging machine are
Earth-moving and excavation plant
Figure 2.3.3 Typical two- and three-axle scraper details (courtesy: Caterpillar)
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Figure 2.3.4 Typical tractor shovel
Earth-moving and excavation plant 77
shovels that discharge at the rear by swinging the bucket over the top of the tractor,
and machines equipped with shovels that have a side discharge facility enabling
the spoil to be tipped into the attendant haul unit parked alongside, thus saving
the time normally taken by the tractor in manoeuvring into a suitable position to
discharge its load. Output of these machines is governed largely by the bucket
capacity, which can be from 0.5 to 4 m3, and the type of soil encountered.
nnn EXCAVATING MACHINES
Most excavating machines consist of a power unit, which is normally a diesel
engine, and an excavating attachment designed to perform a specific task in a certain
manner. These machines can be designed to carry out one specific activity with the
excavating attachment hydraulically controlled, or the plant can consist of a basic
power unit capable of easy conversion by changing the boom, bucket and rigging
arrangement to carry out all the basic excavating functions. Such universal
machines are usually chosen for this adaptability because the bucket sizes and
outputs available of both versions are comparable.
nnn SKIMMER
These machines are invariably based on the universal power unit, and consist of
a bucket sliding along a horizontal jib. The bucket slides along the jib, digging
away from the machine. Skimmers are used for oversite excavation up to a depth
of 300 mm where great accuracy in level is required, and they can achieve an output
of some 50 bucket loads per hour. To discharge the spoil the boom or jib is raised
and the power unit is rotated until the raised bucket is over the attendant haulage
vehicle, enabling the spoil to be discharged through the opening bottom direct
into the haul unit (see Fig. 2.3.5).
nnn FACE SHOVEL
This type of machine can be used as a loading shovel or for excavating into the
face of an embankment or berm. Universal power unit or hydraulic machines are
available with a wide choice of bucket capacities, achieving outputs in the region of
80 bucket loads per hour. The discharge operation is similar to that described above
for the skimmer except that in the universal machine the discharge opening is at the
rear of the bucket whereas in the hydraulic machines discharge is from the front of
the bucket (see Figs 2.3.4 and 2.3.6). These machines are limited in the depth to
which they can dig below machine level; this is generally within the range 300 mm
to 2.000 m.
nnn BACKACTER
This piece of plant is probably the most common form of excavating machinery
used by building contractors for excavating basements, pits and trenches.
Universal power unit and hydraulic versions are available, the latter often
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Figure 2.3.5 Typical skimmer details (courtesy: Ruston-Bucyrus)
Figure 2.3.6 Typical face shovel details (courtesy: Ruston-Bucyrus)
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Figure 2.3.7 Typical backacter details (courtesy: Ruston-Bucyrus)
Earth-moving and excavation plant
Figure 2.3.8 Typical hydraulic backacter details (courtesy: Hymac)
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sacrificing bucket capacity to achieve a greater reach from a set position.
Discharge in both types is by raising the bucket in a tucked position and
emptying the spoil through the open front end into the attendant haul unit
or alongside the trench. Outputs will vary from 30 to 60 bucket loads per hour,
depending upon how confined is the excavation area. Typical details are shown
in Figs 2.3.7 and 2.3.8.
nnn DRAGLINE
This type of excavator is essentially a crane with a long jib to which is attached a
drag bucket for excavating in loose and soft soils below the level of the machine.
This machine is for bulk excavation where fine limits are not of paramount
importance, because this is beyond the capabilities of the machine’s design. The
accuracy to which a dragline can excavate depends upon the skill of the operator.
Discharge of the collected spoil is similar to that of a backacter, being through the
open front end of the bucket (see Fig. 2.3.9). A machine rigged as a dragline can be
fitted with a grab bucket as an alternative for excavating in very loose soils below
the level of the machine. Outputs of dragline excavators will vary according to
operating restrictions from 30 to 80 bucket loads per hour.
nnn MULTI-PURPOSE EXCAVATORS
These machines are based upon a tractor power unit and are very popular with
the small to medium-sized building contractor because of their versatility. The
tractor is usually a diesel-powered wheeled vehicle, although tracked versions are
available; both are fitted with a hydraulically controlled loading shovel at the front
and a hydraulically controlled backacting bucket or hoe at the rear of the vehicle
(see Fig. 2.3.10). It is essential that the weight of the machine is removed from the
axles during a backacting excavation operation. This is achieved by outrigger jacks
at the corners or by jacks at the rear of the power unit working in conjunction with
the inverted bucket at the front of the machine.
nnn TRENCHERS
These are machines designed to excavate trenches of constant width with
considerable accuracy and speed. Widths available range from 250 to 450 mm with
depths up to 4.000 m. Most trenchers work on a conveyor principle, having a series
of small cutting buckets attached to two endless chains, which are supported by a
boom that is lowered into the ground to the required depth. The spoil is transferred
to a cross-conveyor to deposit the spoil alongside the trench being dug; alternatively
it is deposited onto plough-shaped deflection plates that direct the spoil into
continuous heaps on both sides of the trench being excavated as the machine digs
along the proposed trench run. With a depth of dig of some 1.500 m outputs of
up to 2.000 m3 per minute can be achieved, according to the nature of the subsoil.
Some trenchers are fitted with an angled mould blade to enable the machine to
carry out the backfilling operation (see Fig. 2.3.11 for a typical example).
Earth-moving and excavation plant
Figure 2.3.9 Typical dragline details (courtesy: Ruston-Bucyrus)
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Figure 2.3.10 Typical excavator/loader details (courtesy: JCB Sales)
Figure 2.3.11 Typical trench-digging machine (courtesy: Davis Manufacturing)
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