Sensors

Sensors are devices that detect and measure physical quantities or changes in the environment
(such as temperature, pressure, motion, light, or chemical composition) and convert them into
electrical, optical, or mechanical signals for analysis or further processing.
Salient features
1. They transform non-electrical quantities into electrical signals for easier processing.
2. Sensors are designed to provide accurate and repeatable measurements.
3. Ability to detect small changes in the measured parameter.
4. Operate within specific upper and lower limits of measurement.
5. Quick response to changes in the measured parameter.
6. Many modern sensors are compact and suitable for integration into various systems.
7. Includes resistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, optical, and magnetic sensors based on
the working principle.
Actuators
Actuators are devices that convert electrical signals into mechanical motion or force. They
enable a system to interact physically with its environment.
Salient features
1. Transform electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy into mechanical action.
2. Precise control over movement, speed, and force.
3. Actuators produce linear, rotational, or oscillatory motion.
4. Operate using electric current (electric actuators), compressed air (pneumatic
actuators), or fluid pressure (hydraulic actuators).
5. Used in robotics, automation, automotive systems, and industrial machinery.
6. Includes solenoid, servo, stepper motor, and piezoelectric actuators.
System in MEMS
A system refers to an integrated assembly of miniature components, including sensors,
actuators, electronics, and sometimes mechanical structures, designed to perform a specific
function. These systems operate at the micro-scale but can sense, process, and respond to
physical stimuli.
Salient features
1. MEMS systems are designed at the micro-scale, typically ranging from micrometers
to millimeters, enabling compact and lightweight devices.
 2. Combines micro-sensors, micro-actuators, mechanical structures, and electronics into
a single chip or assembly.
3. Operates with low power consumption, making MEMS systems suitable for portable
and battery-operated devices.
4. Capable of detecting and responding to small changes in physical, chemical, or
biological parameters.
5. Integrates electrical, mechanical, thermal, optical, magnetic, and fluidic functions to
perform diverse tasks.
6. Designed to withstand environmental stresses such as vibration, temperature changes,
and mechanical shocks.
7. Features such as cantilevers, diaphragms, gears, and membranes are fabricated with
high accuracy to perform specific mechanical functions.

Silicon Capacitive Accelerometer

 Working Principle
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device an inertial mass (also called a proofmass or
a seismicmass ), a suspension,and a transducing mechanism to convert the acceleration signal
to an electrical signal.

1. A silicon capacitive accelerometer measures acceleration by detecting changes in

electrical capacitance.
2. It consists of a movable proof mass suspended by tiny springs within a silicon frame.
3. The proof-mass is supported by elastic tethers and positioned between fixed
electrodes, forming a capacitor.
4. When the device experiences acceleration, the proof mass shifts due to inertia.
5. When the accelerometer experiences acceleration, the inertial force causes the proof-
mass to move slightly, altering the gap between the movable and fixed electrodes.
 6. This movement alters the distance between capacitor plates: one fixed to the frame
and one attached to the proof mass, which is proportional to the applied acceleration
7. The change in distance between the plates changes the capacitance.
8. Electronic circuits detect this capacitance change and convert it into a voltage signal.
9. This voltage signal is proportional to the acceleration experienced by the device.
10. The entire system is fabricated on a silicon chip using Micro-Electro-Mechanical
Systems (MEMS) technology, allowing for compact and precise acceleration
measurement.

Advantages
 Very low sensitivity to temperature-induced drift.
 Higher output levels than other types.
 Amenability for force-balancing and hence for closed-loop operation.
 High linearity.

Fabrication
1. Use a Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) wafer with three layers: top silicon (for
components), a buried oxide (BOX) layer (for insulation), and a handle silicon layer
(for support).
2. Apply a light-sensitive material (photoresist) and use UV light to transfer the design
of the accelerometer (proof-mass, suspension, and electrodes) onto the top silicon
layer.
3. Use Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) to carve out the proof-mass, suspension
tethers, and fixed electrodes with precise shapes.
4. Remove the buried oxide layer beneath the proof-mass (using HF etching) to allow it
to move freely.
5. Deposit a thin layer of metal (e.g., aluminum or gold) to form electrical paths for the
electrodes.
6. Seal the device with a protective cap to shield it from damage and environmental
factors.
Applications
1. Airbag deployment systems
2. Vehicle stability control
3. Navigation systems
4. Flight control systems
5. Vibration monitoring
6. Dynamic control
7. Motion sensing in wearable devices
8. Implantable devices for patient monitoring
Piezoresistive pressure sensor
Pressure measurement is a key part of many systems, both commercial and industrial. In
most pressure-sensing devices, the pressure to be measured is applied on one side of a
diaphragm and a reference pressure on the other side, thus deforming the diaphragm. This
deformation is measured by measuring the change in electrical resistance due to mechanical
strain (i.e. piezoresistivity) of the material. The deformation is then related to the
pressure to estimate the latter. The rise or fall of the column represents the applied pressure.
Pistontype gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring. A
Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube that, when it expands due to increased pressure, causes
rotation of an arm connected to the tube. This motion is transferred through a linkage
connected to an indicating needle. Diaphragm-type pressure sensors include the aneroid
gauge, which uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different
pressures. The amount of deflection is indicative of the pressure to be determined.

Types
1. Strain
2. Ceramic
3. Diffused silicon
4. Sputtered film

Working principle
 A piezoresistive pressure sensor measures pressure by detecting changes in electrical
resistance due to mechanical deformation.
 It consists of a thin, flexible diaphragm that deforms when pressure is applied.
 Piezoresistors, made from materials whose electrical resistance changes under
mechanical strain, are placed on the diaphragm.
 The sensor consists of four piezoresistors (R1, R2, R3, R4) arranged in a Wheatstone
bridge circuit.
 Two resistors experience an increase in resistance (tensile strain), while the other two
decrease in resistance (compressive strain).
 A constant voltage or current is applied across the bridge.
 When no pressure is applied, the bridge is balanced, meaning the output voltage id
zero
 When pressure is applied, the diaphragm deforms., the piezoresistors change their
resistance, the bridge becomes unbalanced, generating a differential voltage output.
 These resistors are connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which accurately
measures the small changes in resistance.
 The resulting output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge is proportional to the applied
pressure, allowing for precise pressure measurements.
There are three separate effects that contribute to the change in resistance of a conductor.
These are:
1. The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length so stretching increases the
resistance
2. As the conductor is stretched, its cross-sectional area is reduced, which also increases
the resistance
3. The inherent resistivity of some materials increases when it is stretched
The last of these, the piezoresistive effect, varies greatly between materials. The sensitivity is
specified by the gauge factor, which is defined as the relative resistance change divided by
the strain:
Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are made using a Wheatstone bridge circuit
An excitation voltage needs to be provided to the bridge. When there is no strain and all the
resistors in the bridge are balanced then the output will be zero volts. A change in pressure
will cause a change in resistances in the bridge resulting in a corresponding output voltage or
current. How this is calculated is shown in the formula below.

Advantages
 Compact size, making them suitable for a variety of applications, including those
that use an array of such sensors to measure pressure distribution.
 Good thermal stability, since thermal compensation can be built into the sensor.
 Good market potential due to low cost.
Fabrication
1. Piezoresistive pressure sensors are typically made using materials that exhibit
piezoresistivity, such as silicon (Si) or polysilicon.
2. The silicon wafer is thoroughly cleaned to remove any impurities or particles that
could interfere with the sensor’s performance. A thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO )
is grown on the surface of the wafer. This layer provides insulation and can be used
for electrical isolation in the sensor.
3. A piezoresistive material, often a heavily doped silicon layer or polysilicon, is
deposited on the silicon wafer. This material will be the active sensing element.
Deposition methods include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sputtering, or
evaporation, depending on the required properties.
4. A photoresist is applied to the wafer, and a photolithography process is used to pattern
the piezoresistive material. This involves exposing the photoresist to UV light through
a mask, followed by developing the pattern. The pattern defines the areas of the
piezoresistive material that will be part of the sensor's resistive network, usually in the
form of a Wheatstone bridge configuration.
5. The unexposed portions of the photoresist are removed, and the underlying
piezoresistive material is etched away using an appropriate etching solution. Metal
 contacts (usually aluminum or gold) are deposited on the piezoresistive material to
make electrical connections. These contacts allow for the measurement of the
resistivity change as pressure is applied.
6. To create a diaphragm that deforms under pressure, the silicon wafer is thinned using
techniques such as deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) or wet etching. The thickness of
the diaphragm is crucial for sensitivity and response time.

Applications
1. Monitoring tire pressure in vehicles for safety
2. Measuring oil, fuel, and air pressure in automotive engines.
3. Used in medical devices like sphygmomanometers for monitoring blood pressure.
4. Monitoring blood pressure in arteries or veins during medical procedures.
5. Detecting pressure for touch-sensitive applications or environmental monitoring.
6. Monitoring pressure in chemical reactors, pipelines, and tanks.
7. Ensuring proper fluid pressure in machinery for industrial applications.
8. Monitoring cabin pressure, fuel pressure, and other critical systems in aviation.

Portable blood analyser

Portable blood analyzers use sensors to measure a person's blood and display the results on a
screen. They can be used to diagnose conditions like anemia, diabetes, and inflammation.
1. Sensors: Measure parameters like white blood cell levels, hemoglobin levels, and
platelet levels
2. Reagents: Some analyzers use a strip with reagents that are inserted into the machine
3. Light: Some analyzers pass light through the blood sample
4. Electrical pulses: Some analyzers generate electrical pulses when blood cells pass
through a channel
5. Heat and photometry: Some analyzers use heat and photometry to measure chemical
reactions
Working principle
1. A small sample of arterial blood is introduced into the analyzer. This is typically
drawn from an artery to accurately reflect oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
 2. A small drop of blood is placed on the sensor strip, which contains specific enzymes
or reagents.
3. The analyte (e.g., glucose) reacts with the enzyme (e.g., glucose oxidase) on the
sensor.
4. This reaction produces electrons or ions that influence the electrode’s electrical
properties
5. pH Electrode: Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the blood,
indicating the blood's acidity or alkalinity (pH level).
6. PO2 Electrode: Measures the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) in the blood, reflecting
the oxygenation status.
7. PCO2 Electrode: Measures the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the
blood, providing insight into respiratory function and CO2 removal efficiency.
8. The reaction produces an electrical signal (current, voltage, or charge), which is
proportional to the analyte concentration..
9. The electrodes generate electrical signals corresponding to the concentrations of H+,
O2, and CO2. These signals are processed by the analyzer’s microcomputer.
10. The microcomputer analyzes the signals to calculate parameters such as pH, PO2, and
PCO2, as well as additional parameters like bicarbonate levels or oxygen saturation.
11. The calculated results are displayed on the analyzer’s screen, offering a quick, user-
friendly summary of the blood’s gas and acid-base status.
12. The analyzer amplifies and converts the signal into a readable value (e.g., glucose
level in mg/dL or mmol/L).

Applications
1. Measures oxygen and carbon dioxide levels to assess lung function.
2. Helps diagnose conditions like acidosis or alkalosis by measuring blood pH.
3. Used in ICUs to track patients’ respiratory and metabolic status.
4. Monitors blood gases to adjust mechanical ventilation settings.
5. Ensures proper oxygen levels and pH during surgery.
6. Helps assess the breathing and health of newborns, especially premature babies.
7. Quickly assesses gas levels in cases of trauma or poisoning.
8. Tracks respiratory and metabolic conditions in chronic illnesses.

Conductometric Gas Sensor

Gas sensor is a transducer that converts the interaction between gaseous analyte and sensing
material into a suitable form amenable for further processing, providing gas composition and
concentration information
Working principle
1. A conductive gas sensor typically consists of a metal oxide (MOx) layer (such as
SnO2 or ZnO) and a metal additive (like Ag or Pt). These materials are deposited onto
a substrate and connected to electrodes that measure electrical conductivity.
2. The metal additive (e.g., Ag) is exposed to air, where it undergoes oxidation to form a
metal oxide, such as Ag2O3. This oxidation occurs naturally when the metal is
exposed to environmental conditions, such as oxygen in the air.
3. As the metal oxide is formed, a space charge layer is created at the interface between
the metal and the metal oxide (MOx). This layer is electron-depleted, meaning that
the region near the metal-oxide interface has a lower electron density than the
surrounding areas.
4. This depletion of electrons at the interface is crucial because it alters the electronic
properties of the sensor material.
5. When the target gas (e.g., a volatile organic compound or VOC) interacts with the
metal oxide layer, it modifies the space charge region. This modification is due to the
target gas either donating or accepting electrons from the metal oxide surface.
a. For example, a reducing gas like CO or alcohol can donate electrons to the
MOx, increasing conductivity.
b. Conversely, an oxidizing gas can accept electrons from the MOx, decreasing
conductivity.
 6. The metal oxide layer undergoes changes in its electronic structure and resistance as
the space charge layer interacts with the target gas.
7. The change in conductivity due to the interaction with the target gas is detected by the
electrodes. The resistance or conductivity of the MOx layer is measured in real-time,
and this change is used to quantify the concentration of the target gas.
Fabrication
1. Choose a suitable substrate, typically made of ceramic or silicon.
2. Deposit a thin layer of metal oxide, such as SnO2, onto the substrate. This can be
done using techniques like sputtering or sol-gel.
3. Choose a metal (e.g., Ag, Pt) to enhance the sensor’s sensitivity.
4. Oxidize the metal in air, forming a metal oxide (e.g., Ag2O3). The oxidation process
can be done by heating the metal in air.
5. This forms a heterostructure (e.g., Ag2O3-SnO2) that improves the sensor’s response
to gases.
6. Attach electrodes (usually gold or silver) onto the metal oxide layer using techniques
like screen printing or evaporation.
7. The electrodes will be used to measure the change in conductivity caused by the
interaction of gases with the metal oxide.
8. Connect the electrodes to the sensor circuitry for data collection.
9. The sensor is now capable of detecting changes in resistance or conductivity due to
the presence of target gases.

Applications
1. Detects pollutants like CO, NO2, VOCs, and ozone in the air.
2. Used in devices to measure alcohol or acetone for health diagnostics..
3. Detects spoilage gases like ethanol or CO2 in sealed food packages.
4. Monitors methane or propane leaks to prevent accidents.
5. Integrated into wearable tech to monitor environmental gas levels or track health-
related biomarkers.
6. Monitors hazardous gases like methane, ammonia, and hydrogen in factories and
chemical plants.
Micro mirror Array for Video Projection
The Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) is a key technology in modern optics, utilizing
digital voltage signals to control microlens arrays for precise mechanical motion, enabling
advanced optical functions. A DMD chip contains up to 2 million aluminum micromirrors,
each 16 µm in size, capable of tilting between ±12° to represent binary "1" and "0." Each
micromirror in the array is suspended using a torsion beam and acts as a light switch. These
mirrors can be tilted by applying necessary voltage to the two pairs of electrodes, one of each
pair on the mirror and the other one on the substrate. This corresponds to the "on" and "off"
states of pixels, reflecting light toward a projection lens or absorbing element. When light
from a source falls on the mirror, it is reflected. Now the angle of tilt of the mirror decides
whether the light is reflected to the desired location or not. Thus, it can actually switch the
light output on the display area OFF and ON. Each micromirror can be actuated well over
1000 times a second, thereby producing a large number of gray-scale image pixels on a
screen. Colors can be displayed using a single chip by including a synchronized color wheel
or using an LED on the chip. Otherwise, three chips, each corresponding to the primary
colors, can be used to display color images.
Grayscale is achieved through Binary Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), which varies light
exposure durations for each pixel using a 4-bit word system. With switching speeds under 20
microseconds, DMDs offer high precision and image quality. DMDs also play a critical role
in 3D printing, where UV patterns generated by grayscale modulation cure light-sensitive
polymers layer by layer, forming complex three-dimensional structures. The stability and
precision of micromirror motion directly impact image quality, grayscale fidelity, and curing
efficiency, making motion control a critical aspect of DMD performance.

Working Principle
A DMD chip comprises an array of tiny mirrors (each representing a pixel), typically made of
aluminum and mounted on hinges. Each mirror tilts to two stable positions, +12° (on) or −12°
(off), controlled by electrostatic forces generated by underlying CMOS circuitry. The tilt
determines whether light is reflected toward the projection lens or absorbed. The mirror states
correspond to binary "1" (on) and "0" (off), enabling pixel-level light modulation. By rapidly
switching the mirrors between on and off states using Binary Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), [Grayscale or light intensity is achieved by varying the duration the micromirror
stays in the "on" state within a fixed time period. For example, a longer "on" duration results
in higher brightness, while shorter "on" durations produce dimmer light. A bit-depth system
(e.g., 4-bit, 8-bit) is used, where each bit represents a specific duration for the "on" state. For
a 4-bit system (16 grayscale levels), the mirror toggles between on and off states at varying
durations proportional to the binary weight of each bit.] the DMD generates varying
intensities of light for grayscale imaging. In applications like projectors, a color wheel with
red, green, and blue segments synchronizes with the DMD to reflect specific colors at precise
intervals, creating full-color images through additive color mixing. In DLP projectors, the
mirrors dynamically reflect light to form images. In 3D printing, UV light patterns cure
polymers layer by layer, guided by the DMD's grayscale control.

Fabrication

Figure: (a) Schematic view of the digital micromirror device (DMD)-based maskless
photolithography system and fabrication process of a grating with a photocurable resin: (b)
coat spin, (c) exposure, and (d) development and spin dry to finish the fabrication procedure.
The DMD architecture is built up using surface micromachining manufacturing processes.
Since the micromirrors are built directly on top of the CMOS wafer, low temperature
fabrication processes have to be used to build the micromirrors. Semiconductor photoresist
was chosen for the sacrificial layer material, which is removed in the final processing steps
using dry plasma ash processes. Photoresist also has the advantage of being a commonly used
and widely available semiconductor processing material. A DMD process overview is shown
below:
1. This process includes bulk micromachining of metal. SiO2 and aluminum are
deposited and patterned on the CMOS substrate electronically. Etching away the
photoresist leaves the Al mirror with the associated structures, including the torsion
hinge.
2. CMOS wafers are tested for functionality. Wafers are coated with photoresist,
exposed, and developed to define areas where electrical vias will be etched.
3. Dry plasma etching creates vias that connect the CMOS layer to the micromirror
structure. Photoresist is removed after etching to prepare for the micromirror layers.
4. A sacrificial spacer layer is applied and patterned to define areas for the hinge
connections. The spacer is temporary and remains until final assembly.
 5. Aluminum alloy is deposited via Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD). This layer forms
the torsion hinges and spring tips for mirror movement. Hinge patterns are etched, and
dimensions are verified.
6. Spacer-2 is added above the hinge level, separating it from the micromirror layer.
Patterning ensures precise connections between the hinge and the mirror.
7. Aluminum-alloy mirrors are deposited and patterned to define individual pixels. The
thickness is optimized for flatness and response time.
8. Mirrors are etched to size, orientation, and spacing requirements. A protective
photoresist coating is applied to prevent damage during further handling.
9. Protective coatings and sacrificial layers are removed using oxygen plasma ashing,
freeing the mirrors for rotation.
10. The DMD chip is attached to a carrier package using epoxy adhesive. Wire bonding
connects the chip electrically to the package.
11. A clear window is attached to protect the micromirrors and complete the chip
packaging.

Applications
1. Widely used in homes, offices, and theaters for high-quality image and video
projection.
2. DMDs project UV patterns layer by layer to cure photopolymer resins for creating
precise 3D structures.
3. DMDs are used to control light dispersion and collection in analytical instruments for
identifying material compositions.
4. Utilized in semiconductor manufacturing for high-resolution patterning during chip
fabrication.
5. Improves imaging in telescopes, microscopy, and other optical systems by
dynamically adjusting light paths.
6. Enables compact, high-performance displays for immersive AR and VR headsets.
7. Projects critical information on vehicle windshields or aircraft cockpits for enhanced
situational awareness.

Piezoelectric based inkjet print head

The inkjet printing technology is based on the thermocapillary effect. The thermocapillary
effect facilitates the formation and delivery of tiny drops at precise locations on the receiver
material (e.g. paper). Heating a fluid meniscus (curved surface of a liquid at the liquid-air
interface in a microtube) non-uniformly induces a gradient in surface tension. This gradient
produces a tangential force called Marangoni force, on the free surface of the liquid. The
force is also defined as thermocapillary-driven force. Whenever fluid dimensions are less
than 10 microns, thermocapillary driven forces make it possible to separate the droplets
discreetly from the main fluid body contained in the microcapillary tube. The droplets are
propelled through space in front of which the printing materials (e.g. paper) are placed. At the
microlevel the influence due to gravity is extremely small for which the discrete droplets,
while propelled through the space are not disturbed .
A piezo inkjet printer is a type of inkjet printer that uses printer heads containing special
crystals to which an electric current is applied. This causes the crystals to expand, forcing ink
onto a substrate. When the current is removed, the crystal shrinks again, drawing up ink into
the printer head. Piezo inkjet printers use the Drop-On-Demand (DOD) printing technique,
which means the printer carries the ink in a chamber located in the printhead. In order to
apply ink on a surface, piezo inkjet printers use the so-called piezoelectric effect. This effect
consists in creating a voltage on the surface of a piezoelectric material (e.g. piezoelectric
crystals) by deforming it. As a result, the printing nozzle is momentarily deformed, exerting a
high pressure on the ink and making the printhead eject an ink droplet. The polarity of the
voltage is then reversed so that the ink stops flowing from the nozzle. There are two modes in
which the piezo inkjet printers apply ink: the bend and the shear mode. In the first case, the
ink is drawn and forced out of the chamber via the nozzle by a two-way expansion. The
second mode achieves the same result, only that pressure waves are used instead, consuming
less energy.
Figure . Schematic of three different piezoelectric inkjet printhead modes.
1. The print head uses electricity to create mechanical movement, which pushes tiny ink
droplets out with precision.
2. The main part is the piezoelectric actuator, made of special materials like lead zirconate
titanate (PZT).
3. The actuator changes shape when electricity is applied.
4. The print head has small spaces called pressure chambers, each filled with ink and
connected to a nozzle (tiny hole).
5. When electricity is applied, the actuator deforms, squeezing the pressure chamber.
6. This squeezing creates pressure, forcing a drop of ink out through the nozzle.
7. When the electricity is turned off, the actuator returns to its original shape, pulling more
ink into the chamber for the next drop.
8. This process allows precise control over the size, placement, and speed of the ink
droplets.
9. Piezoelectric inkjet print heads are used in high-resolution printing because they are very
accurate.
Fabrication
A piezoelectric based inkjet print head is fabricated by precisely placing piezoelectric
elements within a substrate, typically made of silicon or ceramic, with integrated ink
channels, where the piezoelectric elements deform when an electric voltage is applied,
causing ink to be ejected from the nozzle in the form of tiny droplets, enabling precise
printing on a target surface; this process usually involves micro-machining techniques like
photolithography to create the nozzle structure and carefully bonding the piezoelectric
elements to the substrate.
1. Selecting a suitable substrate material (e.g., silicon, ceramic) and cleaning it
thoroughly.
2. Creating the desired nozzle pattern using photolithography, where a UV-sensitive
photoresist is patterned onto the substrate to define the ink channel geometry.
3. Depositing a thin layer of piezoelectric material (like lead zirconate titanate - PZT)
onto the substrate using techniques like sputtering or sol-gel deposition.
4. Precise patterning of the piezoelectric layer to match the nozzle design through
photolithography or other micro-machining methods.
5. Depositing electrodes on top of the piezoelectric layer using techniques like sputtering
or evaporation, allowing for electrical connections to the piezoelectric element.
6. Etching or drilling the ink channels through the substrate, ensuring precise alignment
with the piezoelectric elements.
7. Often, a protective layer is added on top of the nozzle to prevent ink from leaking.
8. Bonding the top substrate to the piezoelectric layer and ink channels, creating a sealed
chamber.
9. Sealing the print head to prevent ink leakage and maintain proper pressure within the
ink channels.

Application
1. High-quality printing for images and text on paper, plastic, and textiles
2. Printing conductive inks for flexible electronics and PCBs.
3. Precise deposition of materials in 3D printing.
4. Printing cells and biological materials for medical research.
5. Printing barcodes, logos, and information on packaging.
6. Direct printing of designs on fabrics.
7. Printing patterns on ceramics and tiles.
8. Direct printing on food products and pharmaceuticals.

Electrostatic combdrive
The comb-drive actuator is one of the widely used and well-developed prime movers for
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). It is a reciprocating linear actuator driven by
/electrostatic force. The stroke length of this actuator is usually in the range of a few microns
to few tens of microns. It is capable of delivering force in the range of µN and up to a few
mN with a good design. The stroke length and the force depend on the overall lateral size of
the actuator and its thickness.
The comb-drive actuator works on the basis of electrostatic force acting between a pair of
misaligned comb fingers. Consider two prismatic solids whose top view is shown in Fig. 3a.
As depicted in the figure, assume that they are misaligned in the longitudinal direction with
voltage applied between them. Then, there will be an electrostatic force as indicated
approximately by the field lines. If one of the fingers is held fixed, the other will then be
moved so as to align them. This is how the motion is created in this device. The force of
attraction between the fingers is given by the following formula.

The force between two fingers is very small. It helps to use an inter-digitated configuration
with two anchored fingers on either side of the moving finger. This is shown in Fig. 3b.
Furthermore, by using an array of moving and anchored fingers, the generated force is made
larger. But the stroke length is limited by the permitted displacement of the moving fingers.
All the moving fingers are attached to a mass, a rectangular block. An array of moving
fingers is attached to the mass on either side as can be seen in Figs. 1 and 2. There are also
corresponding anchored array of comb fingers on either side. By keeping the mass and the
moving fingers at ground voltage and alternatively actuating the anchored comb arrays on
either side, the mass can be shuttled forward and backward. Hence, it is called a shuttle mass.
This is suspended freely above the substrate wafer by means of a suspension. The suspension
is designed such that it provides significant elastic flexibility to move in the intended
direction but significant stiffness in the perpendicular direction in the lateral plan. This
enables the mass to be guided along a straight line as it is sliding in a slot. Having a slot in a
micromachined structure is not a good idea because of the friction and wear problems, which
are dominant at the micro scale.
1. The device consists of a shuttle mass with moving comb fingers attached to it. These
moving fingers are placed between anchored (fixed) comb fingers that are fixed to the
substrate.
2. The shuttle mass is suspended above the substrate using a folded-beam suspension
system. This suspension allows the mass to move freely in one direction while being
stiff in perpendicular directions to ensure straight-line motion.
3. The moving comb fingers and shuttle mass are kept at ground voltage. Voltage is
applied alternately to the top and bottom anchored comb arrays.
4. When voltage is applied to the anchored comb fingers, an electrostatic force is
generated between the moving and anchored comb fingers. This force causes the
moving comb fingers to try to align with the anchored comb fingers.
5. By alternating the voltage on the top and bottom anchored comb arrays, the shuttle
mass is pulled back and forth, creating a to-and-fro motion.
6. The interdigitated configuration (moving fingers between anchored fingers) increases
the total force generated. However, the stroke length (displacement) is limited by how
far the moving fingers can move without causing instability.
7. The suspension system is designed to guide the shuttle mass in a straight line without
the need for physical slots, which would cause friction and wear at the micro scale.
8. The device can also be used for sensing by measuring changes in capacitance between
the moving and anchored comb fingers. When used as a sensor, the suspension is
rotated by 90 degrees to maximize capacitance changes.
9. The main advantage of this design is its ability to generate precise motion with low
friction and wear, making it suitable for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
10. The limitations include limited stroke length due to displacement constraints and the
need for careful design to avoid instability in the moving parts.
11. Overall, the comb-drive actuator converts electrical energy (voltage) into mechanical
motion (shuttling of the mass) using electrostatic forces, guided by a suspension
system for precise control.

Fabrication
The electrostatic comb-drive was first microfabricated using surface micromachining. Later
on, it was fabricated with other processes. In fact, its fabrication is possible with most
micromachining techniques with equal ease. Here, we will describe the surface
micromachining process that was used in reference [1] with slight modification. On a silicon
substrate that has n+ diffusion on the surface, a 1500 Ǻ thick silicon nitride layer is deposited
using LPCVD after a 5000 Ǻ thick thermal oxide is grown. (These two layers serve the
purpose of passivation for the ground electrode and contacts for the anchored polysilicon
structure.) Using a ground plane anchor mask (mask #1), contact windows are opened in the
nitride and oxide layers. This is followed by LPCVD of 3000 Ǻ thick polysilicon structural
layer and its patterning using ground plane mask (mask #2). (This polysilicon layer serves as
a ground plane that acts like a group electrode.) Then, a 2 µm thick PSG (oxide) is deposited
using LPCVD and is patterned using anchor mask (mask #3). (This layer serves as the
sacrificial layer and openings in it serve as anchors for the next polysilicon structural layer.)
This is followed by LPCVD of 2 µm thick polysilicon layer, which is patterned with device
mask (mask #4). (This layer makes the moving and stationary comb arrays as well as the
shuttle mass and the suspension springs.) Finally, the sacrificial oxide layer is dissolved.

1. Add a thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO ) on silicon wafer substrate

2. Deposit a layer of polysilicon or silicon (the structural material for comb fingers and
shuttle mass)
3. Coat the wafer with photoresist and use a mask to define the pattern of the comb
fingers, shuttle mass, and suspension.
4. Use dry etching (e.g., reactive ion etching) to remove unwanted material and create
the comb fingers, shuttle mass, and suspension structure.
5. Perform wet etching (e.g., using hydrofluoric acid) to remove the sacrificial layer
(e.g., SiO ) underneath the moving parts, freeing the shuttle mass and comb fingers.
6. Clean the wafer to remove any residues and ensure smooth operation of the moving
parts.
Applications
1. Used in sensors and switches for precise mechanical movement.
2. Controls micro-mirror tilts in DLP projectors.
3. Manipulates Atomic Force Microscope probes for surface scanning.
4. Controls fluid flow in lab-on-a-chip devices.
5. Switches optical signals in photonic circuits.
6. Damps vibrations in sensitive equipment.
7. Generates power from mechanical vibrations.
8. Enables precise movement in micro-robots.
Magnetic Micro Relay
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit . In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one
or many sets of contacts. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power
than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in abroad sense, a form of an electrical
amplifier. The figure below shows a simpler elay

Micromachined relays have many advantages, such as small size, fast switching speed, and
low cost. Microrelays are usually categorized into groups of electrostatically actuated
microrelays, thermally driven microrelays, electromagnetically driven microrelays, etc. The
fabrication process of electrostatically actuated microrelays is simple and is suitable for
fabricating small devices with low power. However, this device needs driving voltage of tens
to hundreds of volts, which is not compatible with the ordinary electric circuit power supply.
Therefore, the application of the electrostatic device is limited. Thermally driven microrelays
are also seldom researched due to their large power consumption and slow switching speed.
Compared with electrostatically driven microrelays and thermally driven microrelays,
microelectromagnetic relays are superior because of their lower driving voltage (about 5 V),
easy compatibility with ordinary electric circuit voltage, and tolerance of poor working
conditions of dust, humidity, and low temperatures.

Principle of operation
1. No current flows through the excited coil initially.
2. The relay is in the OFF state, and the circuit is open.
3. Current is applied to the excited coil, generating magnetic flux.
4. Magnetic flux concentrates in the permalloy magnetic core.
5. The magnetic force attracts the permalloy cantilever (spring).
6. The cantilever bends downward, moving the active armature.
7. The active armature connects to the fixed contact, closing the circuit.
8. Current flows through the relay, turning it ON.
9. When the current to the coil is cut off, the magnetic flux disappears.
10. The cantilever returns to its original position due to the spring’s restoring force.
11. The active armature disconnects from the fixed contact, opening the circuit.
12. The relay returns to the OFF state.
13. The cycle repeats when the coil is energized or de-energized.
Fabrication
1. Begin with a silicon or glass substrate as the base material.
 2. Deposit a magnetic material (e.g., nickel or cobalt alloy) onto the substrate using
techniques like sputtering or electroplating.
3. Pattern the deposited layer to form the magnetic core.
4. Deposit an insulating layer (e.g., silicon dioxide) over the magnetic core.
5. Use photolithography to define the coil layout.
6. Deposit and pattern a conductive material (e.g., copper) to form the coil.
7. Add another insulating layer to separate the coil from other components.
8. Create movable contacts and an armature using materials like polysilicon or metal.
9. Use techniques such as surface micromachining or bulk micromachining to shape and
release these components.
10. Place a permanent magnet or integrate a soft magnetic material near the actuator for
magnetic interaction.
11. Encapsulate the micro relay using protective materials like epoxy or glass to shield it
from environmental damage.
12. Ensure electrical connections are made accessible through wire bonding or flip-chip
techniques.

Fig.. Fabrication-process steps of the proposed microrelay. (a) Gate-electrode formation. (b)
BCB coating, curing, and probe pad open. (c) Drain-electrode formation. (d) Sacrificial and
diffusion-barrier-layer deposition. (e) Post patterning. (f) Seed (contact) layer deposition. (g)
PhotoResist mold patterning and Ni source electroplating. (h) Annealing (200 ◦ C for 1 h) and
wet etching to release.

Applications
Signal routing and switching in communication networks.
Control circuits in vehicles, such as sensors and actuators.
Power management and circuit control in smartphones, tablets, and wearables.
Precision control in medical equipment like implantable devices and diagnostic tools.
Switching and control in automated systems and robotics.
Reliable switching in avionics and spacecraft systems
Energy-efficient switching in smart home devices and sensors.