lithosphe Continental SiAl Less dense (thick) Old

re crust (Granite)
Oceanic crust SiMa More dense (thin) New
(Basalt)
Asthenosphere – imaginary division between the lithosphere and
lower mantle
Upper mantle Molten rock solid
1200 Lower mantle Semiliquid
5000 Outer core NiFe Less dense - liquid
5500- Inner core NiFe More dense - solid
6200

The crust is made up of solid crustal blocks that float on the mantle. It is of 2
types – oceanic and continental.
Tectonic plates are solid lithospheric blocks that float on the upper mantle due
to convection currents caused by radioactive fission in the mantle. Main: North
American, South American, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, Eurasian, Pacific.
Continental shelve is a shallow, gently sloping, underwater area extending
from the coastline made of granite.
Continental slope is a narrow, steep, seaward facing slope from where the
oceanic crust descends.
Mantle is a layer of molten rocks which is generally semiliquid in nature. The
upper mantle is more mobile and subject to convection currents.
Outer core is mostly liquid in nature and is made up of nickel and iron.
Inner core is mostly solid in nature and is made up of nickel and iron. It is
denser than the outer core.
Focus is the point below the earth’s surface where the seismic waves originate
Epicenter is the point perpendicular to the focus on the earth’s surface where
the shock waves are felt
Earthquakes are tremors felt on the earth’s surface. The friction as plates move
leads to the buildup of pressure which is released in the form of seismic waves.
The stress energy is experienced as an earthquake.
Magnitude is the amount of energy an earthquake gives out – richter scale
measures magnitude, Mercalli scale measures destruction
Continental Drift Theory proposed by Alfred Wegener suggests that there
used to be one supercontinent named Pangaea that was floating on one large
ocean names Pangalassa. Pangaea then broke apart into many smaller
landmasses which today act as out continents, and continue to float on the
ocean.
Evidence: continents fit together like puzzle pieces, matching rock formations are
found across continents, matching fossils and plant remains are found across
continents, plants and their resulting coal deposits found across continents.
Limitations: although his concept was correct, he could not identify a reason that
the continents began to drift apart. He suggested an asteroid attack, a huge
storm, and the changing waves in the Pangalassa, however all were rejected.
Plate Tectonics Theory is based on the idea that tectonic plates, also known as
lithospheric plates, are floating on the upper mantle due to convection currents
caused by radioactive fission in the mantle.
Tsunamis are large waves surged because of the stress released by an
underwater earthquake.
Volcanoes are where liquid rock or magma shoots out or erupts through the
ground. Above ground, the magma is called lava.
 Active – erupted recently, likely to erupt again, high seismic activity
 Dormant – not erupted recently, may erupt again
 Extinct – not erupted in thousands of years, unlikely to ever erupt again
 CONVERGENT DIVERGENT TRANSFORM
Motion collide diverge laterally slide past
Crust C-O C-C O-O C-C C-C O-O
Effect destructive collisional constructive conservative
Process subduction uplift seafloor spreading faulting
Topo V, trenches, FMs Fold Mts MO ridges, islands rift valleys none
Activity E, V E E, V E

Types of movement:
Convergent – Destructive (subduction), Collisional (fold mountains)
Destructive – Subduction:
1. Convection currents in the mantle move towards each other and then sink
into the core
2. The friction between the mantle and the plates cause them to move
towards eachother and collide (convergent movement). The denser
oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate. The place
where subduction takes place is known as the zone of subduction.
3. Due to extreme heat and pressure, the oceanic plate melts.
4. The molten rock and magma from the melted oceanic plate rises to form a
magma chamber.
5. As pressure builds up in the magma chamber, it is released in the form of
a volcanic eruption. It rises through a vent and comes out.
6. When subduction takes place, the continental plate gets folded and forms
fold mountains.
7. In the place where the 2 plates converge, a deep ocean trench is formed.
These are some of the deepest places on our planet.
8. The stress energy created by the friction is released by earthquakes.
Collisional – uplift:
1. Convection currents in the mantle move towards eachother
2. The friction between the mantle and the plates drags the 2 continental
plates towards each other
3. Since they have the same density, the crust is crumpled and folded
upwards.
4. This results in the formation of young fold mountains
5. The collisional plate boundaries build up a lot of tectonic stress energy due
to friction, which is released in the form of earthquakes

Divergent:
1. Convection currents move the mantle in opposite directions
2. This drags oceanic plates on opposite directions (divergent movement)
3. Underwater volcanoes erupt with lava out of the gap created in the
seafloor
4. The lava cools to form underwater mountains called ridges
5. The ridges sometimes grow to form islands like the Azores in the Atlantic
Ocean
Transform
1. Convection currents in the mantle move 2 plate boundaries such that they
laterally slide past each other in a transform movement
2. This can happen with any kind of plates
3. In the place where the plates meet and ‘lock together’ immense pressure
builds up
4. Energy is released in the form of seismic waves which can cause
earthquakes
5. Up on land, the epicenter is directly above the focus
6. Long and deep fault lines form all along the plate boundaries
7. One major example is the San Andreas Fault in California

Factors affective a earthquake’s magnitude

 1. Time of the day: people can evacuate faster during the day
2. Slope aspect: slopes have gravity acting under them so more damage.
3. Rock type: Granite, basalt, and igneous rocks are more stable than
sedimentary rocks. Therefore, there is less chance of rocks getting cracked
and less stable.
4. Depth of the focus: A shallow depth will result in more intense seismic
waves felt at the epicenter.
5. Population density: the more people, the more damage
6. Urban infrastructure: tall high rises have higher chances of collapse,
even in glass buildings.
7. Warning system: sensors to detect earthquakes
8. Technology to build earthquake proof building
9. Government monitoring system raises alertness

 Damage by eq can be primary or secondary

o P – tsunami; s – flooding
o P – loss on infrastructure; s – homelessness

Predicting:
 Eq
o Foreshock – gentle tremours of earths surface before a major eq
o Animal behaviour changes
o Rock alignment negligibly changes
 Volcano
o Fumes come out of vent
o Water becomes yellowish due to silica content
o Water temp rises
o Geysers sprout out everywhere
o Rumbling sound

Preventing / limiting damage

 Stronger building base
 Warning systems
 Shelter homes
 Strings as shock absorbers suspending the building to prevent collapse
and allow ‘swaying’
 Limiting building heights
Volcano parts:
 Magma reservoir – hollow, central, underground chamber filled with
magma and blocked by rocks. Pressure builds up here and when its
released it blasts off the aforementioned rocks, thus making the volcano
explosive
 Conduit – main underground passage through which magma passes
 Vent – opening through which magma escapes
 Crater – mouth of the volcano surrounding the vent
 Ash cloud – cloud of ash – heavy cloud will collapse and rush down slope
as pyroclastic flow; If mixed with water, river of mud called mudflow;
Volcanic gas is mainly steam, CO2 and sulphur dioxide. Smells of rotten
eggs
Types of volcanoes:

Composite Shield
 Formed at destructive plate  formed at constructive plate
boundaries boundaries
 when oceanic plate melts, silica  magma comes straight from the
content in MC increases mantle and is thus low in silica,
 silica makes magma viscous, thus
thick and sticky  runny and not viscous
 sticky magma blocks vent  limited pressure buildup
causing  rare eruptions
 immense pressure buildup  when it erupts, lava is runny
causing and thus travels long distances
 very explosive eruptions before cooling
 viscous lava moves slowly and  therefore flat, bowl shape, long
thus travels very little distance gentle slopes
before cooling in place  have parasitic cones
 therefore, steep sides
 layers of volcanic rock
 new layer laid down every
eruption
 also called strato

Damage caused by volcanoes

 pyroclastic flow kills everything in its path
 mudflow drowns people
 lava flow destroys crops, villages. Even death but they are slow so u can
walk away
 volcanic gas causes acid rain killing plants
 ash can
o rise and block sunlight – temperatures fall
o damage plane engines
o suffocate people
o ruin crops

Why do people live in danger zones prone to earthquakes etc?

 didn’t know when they moved in
 thought that there were sufficient risk preparedness: building design,
warning systems, monitoring etc
 peer and family ties to land
 mindset of denial
 employment and agricultural opportunities
 lack of money to move out
 constant monitoring
advantages
 very fertile soil (agriculture)
 tourism money – people come to see geysers etc
 geothermal energy – water is converted to steam by hot rocks. Steam
drives turbines
 copper silver gold lead basalt sulphur collect in veins when magma cools
and hardens
 fossil fuels – uplifting of OP buries vegetation and brings up old fossils etc