MODULE II

APPLICATIONS OF BIOMOLECULES
Contents: Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in
bioplastics production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis, Proteins in food production,
lipids in biodiesel and detergents production, Enzymes in biosensors fabrication, food
processing, detergent formulation and textile processing.

CARBOHYDRATES:
 Carbohydrates are molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
 They are a major source of energy for the body.

CELULLOSE:
 Cellulose is a type of complex carbohydrate made of many glucose units.
 It's found in large amounts in nature, is renewable, and can break down naturally.
 Cellulose doesn't dissolve in water or common organic solvents because of how its glucose
units are bonded together.
 Taking benefit of these advantages of cellulose, we have a best application of cellulose
that is Cellulose based water filters.
CELLULOSE-BASED WATER FILTERS:
 Cellulose filter paper is a type of filter paper made from cellulose fibers, which are
derived from plants.
 Interest in biobased filters for water purification is growing due to their potential for
affordability, light weight, and biodegradability.
 Research focuses on creating biobased membranes from cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) for
micro and ultrafiltration.

Properties Of Cellulose Based Water Filter Papers:

 High porosity: Cellulose fibers have a naturally high porosity, which allows water to
flow through the filter easily. This makes them ideal for applications where fast flow
rates are desired.
 Biodegradable: Cellulose is a natural polymer that is biodegradable, making cellulose-
based water filter paper an environmentally friendly option.
 Low cost: Cellulose is a relatively abundant and inexpensive material, making
cellulose-based water filter paper an affordable option for low-resource settings.
 Limited size exclusion: While cellulose-based filter paper can remove particles due to
size exclusion, the pores are often large enough to allow bacteria to pass through.
 Cellulose-based water filter paper can be modified to improve its performance.
For example, it can be impregnated with silver nanoparticles to kill bacteria or coated
with a charged polymer to remove contaminants through electrostatic interactions.
1|Page
 Advantages of Cellulose Based Water Filter Papers:
 Affordability: Cellulose is a naturally abundant and inexpensive material, making
these filters a cost-effective solution for clean water access.
 Biodegradability: Cellulose decomposes naturally, minimizing waste disposal
concerns compared to synthetic filter materials.
 Availability: Cellulose is a widely available material, making these filters obtainable
in remote areas where access to specialized filtering equipment might be limited.
 Reasonable Flow Rate: The high porosity of cellulose allows for a decent flow rate
during filtration, making it practical for everyday use.
 Large Particle Removal: Cellulose filter paper can effectively trap larger particles like
sediments, debris, and even some parasites from the water, improving clarity and
reducing turbidity.

POLY LACTIC ACID [PLA] AND POLY HYDROXY ALKANOATES

[PHA]:
 PLA (Poly Lactic Acid) and PHA (Poly Hydroxyalkanoates) are bioplastics that serve as
eco-friendly alternatives to traditional, non-biodegradable plastics.
 Bioplastics are derived from natural resources like starches and vegetable oils, and they are
classified as bio-based and/or biodegradable.
 Not all bio-based plastics are biodegradable, and not all biodegradable plastics are bio-based.
 Bioplastics are considered bio-based when the carbon building blocks originate from natural
sources, regardless of their biodegradability.
 Bioplastics are biodegradable if they can be broken down by environmental conditions and
microbes, serving as a food source for them.
 Bioplastics are deemed compostable if they can be fully assimilated by microbes in a
compost environment within 180 days.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PLA (POLY LACTIC ACID) AND PHA (POLY

HYDROXY ALKANOATES):
PROPERTIES PLA PHA
Made from renewable resources like Produced by microorganisms feeding
SOURCE MATERIAL
corn starch, sugarcane, or cassava. on sugars or organic matter.
Biodegradable under industrial Generally considered more
composting conditions (high biodegradable. Can break down in
BIODEGRADABILITY
temperatures). May take a long time to various conditions, including soil and
break down in a natural environment. marine environments.
Stiffer and more brittle than PHA. More flexible and ductile than PLA.
MECHANICAL Similar properties to PET Offers a wider range of possible
PROPERTIES (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic properties depending on the type of
used in bottles. PHA.
Currently less expensive to produce More expensive due to relatively new
COST than PHA due to established production processes.
production methods.
Requires high temperatures, pressures, Produced through fermentation by
and catalysts during the microorganisms. Generally, less
PRODUCTION
polymerization process. Can be energy-intensive than PLA production.
energy-intensive.
2|Page
NUCLEIC ACIDS:
 Nucleic acids are macromolecules essential for life.
 They are made up of nucleotides, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base.
 The two main types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.
 DNA carries genetic information, while RNA helps in protein synthesis.

DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES:

 DNA vaccine for rabies uses a plasmid encoding the rabies virus glycoprotein gene.
 It induces long-lasting protective immunity against rabies virus in dogs.
 The vaccine has shown safety and efficacy in preventing rabies.
 It offers advantages like rapid development and long-lasting immunity.
 Research continues to enhance its effectiveness for human use.

STEPS INVOLVED IN DNA VACCINE DEVELOPMENT FOR RABIES:

1. Designing the Plasmid: The plasmid is engineered to contain the gene for the rabies virus
glycoprotein. This gene is selected because it is a key protein that stimulates the immune
system to produce antibodies against the rabies virus.
2. Inserting the Gene: The gene for the rabies virus glycoprotein is inserted into the plasmid
using molecular biology techniques. This ensures that the plasmid will carry the gene into
the host's cells.
3. Vaccine Preparation: The plasmid containing the gene is purified and prepared for
vaccination. It is often mixed with other substances to enhance its stability and
effectiveness.
4. Administration: The vaccine is administered to the host, typically through injection. The
plasmid enters the host's cells, where the gene for the rabies virus glycoprotein is expressed.
5. Immune Response: The host's immune system recognizes the glycoprotein as a foreign
substance and mounts an immune response. This includes the production of antibodies
specific to the glycoprotein.
6. Protection: The antibodies produced by the immune system are capable of recognizing
and neutralizing the rabies virus. This provides the host with protection against rabies if
they are exposed to the virus in the future.
7. Monitoring: The immune response and any side effects of the vaccine are monitored to
ensure its safety and effectiveness.

3|Page
RNA VACCINE FOR COVID:
 COVID-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and mRNA technology is used in
vaccines to generate an immune response.
 mRNA instructs cells to produce a protein that triggers antibody production, providing
protection against COVID-19.
 Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna vaccines use mRNA technology, part of the COVAX
global vaccine initiative.
 mRNA vaccines do not alter DNA, as the mRNA is broken down after protein
production.
 The immune system recognizes the protein produced and builds a response to fight the
virus.

STEPS INVOLVED IN RNA VACCINE DEVELOPMENT FOR COVID-19:

1. mRNA Design: Scientists design the mRNA sequence to encode a specific viral protein,
in this case, the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2.
2. mRNA Production: The mRNA is synthesized in the laboratory using a template that
matches the viral protein sequence.
3. Lipid Nanoparticle Encapsulation: The mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles to
protect it and help it enter cells.
4|Page
 4. Vaccination: The mRNA vaccine is administered through injection, typically into the
muscle.
5. Cellular Uptake: Cells at the injection site take up the lipid nanoparticles containing the
mRNA.
6. Protein Production: The mRNA instructs the cells to produce the spike protein of the
virus.
7. Immune Response: The immune system recognizes the spike protein as foreign and
mounts an immune response, including the production of antibodies.
8. Memory Cells: Some of the immune cells generated "remember" the spike protein,
providing immunity in case of future exposure to the virus.

PROTIENS:
 Proteins are essential biomolecules present in all living organisms, vital for numerous
biological functions.
 They consist of long chains of amino acids, with each protein having a specific sequence
that determines its function.
 Proteins play critical roles in catalyzing chemical reactions, providing structural support,
and transporting molecules within cells.

PROTEIN AS FOOD:
 Protein is a crucial component of a balanced diet, with the average person requiring about
7 grams per day for every 20 pounds of body weight.
 While many foods contain protein, it's important to consider the overall nutritional value
of the food.
 Animal-based foods like meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy are good sources of complete
protein, containing all essential amino acids.
 In contrast, plant-based foods like fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds may lack
certain essential amino acids, making it important to eat a variety of plant-based proteins
to ensure adequate intake.
5|Page
WHEY PROTEIN:
 Whey protein is a mixture of proteins isolated from whey, a by-product of cheese
production.
 It contains proteins such as α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin, and
immunoglobulins.
 Whey is obtained when milk is coagulated during cheese production, and it contains soluble
components of milk after the pH is lowered to 4.6.
 Whey protein supplements are commonly used for muscle growth and development.
 Consuming whey protein supplements before exercise does not improve athletic
performance but enhances protein recovery and synthesis after exercise.
 Whey protein can be processed to increase its protein content by removing lactose, lipids,
and other non-protein materials.

MEAT ANALOGUES:
 People are interested in meat alternatives that are tasty, healthy, and good for the
environment.
 High moisture extrusion cooking helps make plant-based meats that look and feel like real
meat.
 These meat alternatives are made to taste and feel like real meat while being healthy and
environmentally friendly.
 The shift towards these alternatives is driven by people wanting to eat less fat and calories,
more plant-based foods, and reduce the impact on the environment.
 Most of these products are made from soy proteins, with some new ingredients added to
improve taste and texture.

PLANT BASED PROTIENS:

 Plant protein comes from sources like pulses, tofu, soy, tempeh, seitan, nuts, seeds, certain
grains, and peas.
 Pulses include chickpeas, lentils, beans (such as black, kidney, and adzuki beans), and split
peas.
 Plant proteins are not just good sources of protein but also provide fiber, vitamins, and
minerals.
 Incorporating plant proteins like pulses, peas, and nuts into your diet can help boost your
fiber intake.
 Consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow
significantly in the next decade.
 Reasons for the popularity of plant proteins include potential health benefits, concerns
about the health effects of high animal protein diets, environmental sustainability, ethical
considerations regarding animal treatment, and the general perception of protein as a
beneficial nutrient.
 While diets high in plant-based protein have health benefits, plant proteins may be inferior
to animal proteins in some aspects of nutritional quality.

6|Page
LIPIDS:
 Lipids are a diverse group of molecules including fats, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids.
 They serve functions such as energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling.
 Lipids are hydrophobic or amphiphilic, allowing them to form structures in water.
 They originate from biochemical subunits ketoacyl and isoprene groups.
 Lipids have applications in industries like cosmetics, food, and nanotechnology.

BIODIESEL:
 Lipids obtained from food waste can serve as a valuable feedstock for biodiesel production.
This process involves transesterification, where the lipids are reacted with an alcohol (such
as methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst to produce biodiesel and glycerol as a
byproduct.
 Chemical Catalyst: Using potassium hydroxide in the transesterification process can
achieve a 100% conversion of lipids to biodiesel in a relatively short time, typically around
2 hours.
 Biocatalyst: Biocatalysts like Novozyme-435, an enzyme, can also be used for
transesterification. This method is more environmentally friendly, it may take longer (up
to 24 hours) and yield slightly lower conversion rates, around 90%.
 Biodiesel, a renewable and biodegradable fuel, is produced from animal fats or vegetable
oils, including soybean oil, vegetable oil, and animal fat (tallow). It can be used in standard
diesel engines without modification. Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil or
blended with gasoline in any proportion.

DETERGENTS:
1. Detergents are a type of surfactant, or surface-active agent, that are widely used for cleaning
and removing dirt and grease.
2. Detergents are like tiny cleaning molecules that can disrupt the structure of cell membranes,
which are like protective barriers around cells.
3. They have a part that loves water (hydrophilic head) and a part that hates water
(hydrophobic tail).
4. The hydrophobic tail of the detergent can sneak into the cell membrane's oily interior,
causing it to break apart.
5. This breaking apart of the membrane helps detergent molecules to grab onto and dissolve
membrane proteins and other stuff from the membrane.
7|Page
 6. In water, detergent molecules can also form tiny clusters called micelles, where the
hydrophobic tails hide in the middle and the hydrophilic heads stick out, making them
soluble and able to carry away the membrane components.
7. Scientists use this property of detergents to study and extract proteins from cell membranes
for research and other purposes.
8. Detergents and lipids both have a similar structure, with a polar head and a nonpolar tail.
However, they differ in the shape of their monomers, the way they form groups in a
solution, and the amount needed for these groups to form.

ENZYMES:
Enzymes are proteins that accelerate chemical reactions in living organisms.
They lower the activation energy required for reactions to proceed.
Enzymes are essential for metabolism, building some substances and breaking down
others.
 Living organisms naturally produce enzymes.
 There are six main types of enzymes: hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases,
ligases, and isomerases.
 Enzyme-based biosensors offer fast, precise, and continuous monitoring of analytes due to
their high specificity, simplicity, and scalability.
ENZYMES IN BIOSENSORS:
 Biosensors are utilized in disease monitoring, drug discovery, and detecting pollutants and
disease-causing microorganisms.
 They are also used to detect markers that indicate a disease in bodily fluids like blood,
urine, saliva, and sweat.
 Different types of biosensors include enzyme-based biosensors, immunosensors, DNA
biosensors, thermal biosensors, and piezoelectric biosensors.
 Enzymes play a crucial role in biosensors, with glucose oxidase being a common enzyme
used in amperometric glucose biosensors.

GLUCOSE OXIDASE IN BIOSENSORS:

 Glucose oxidase (Gox) is a commonly used enzyme in glucose biosensors due to its
stability and cost-effectiveness.
 Gox facilitates the redox reaction and transfers electrons from its active sites to the
electrode for analyzing glucose levels in blood samples.
 Amperometric glucose biosensors are created by immobilizing Gox, which can reduce
oxygen to hydrogen peroxide and convert glucose to d-glucono-1,5-lactone.

8|Page
  Glucose levels can be quantified by detecting the hydrogen peroxide produced or the
oxygen consumed in this process.

ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING:

Enzymes are like tiny helpers in food processing. They speed up important reactions without
getting used up themselves. This makes food processing faster, improves quality, and can even
lead to new food products.

Benefits of Using Enzymes:

 Enhanced Efficiency: Enzymes can significantly speed up reactions, leading to faster
processing times, increased production output, and reduced energy consumption.
 Improved Quality: Enzymes can help control specific reactions, leading to more
consistent and desirable textures, flavors, and colors in food products.
 Nutritional Enhancement: Enzymes can break down complex molecules into simpler,
more bioavailable forms, improving the nutritional value of food.
 Creation of New Products: Enzymes can be used to develop entirely new food
products or modify existing ones to meet specific dietary needs or preferences.
 Reduced Waste: Enzymes can help extract valuable components from raw materials,
minimizing waste generation.

Common Applications of Enzymes in Food Processing:

 Baking Industry: Amylases break down starches into sugars, allowing for dough rise
and fermentation in bread production.
 Dairy Industry: Rennet (chymosin) separates milk curds from whey in cheesemaking.
Lactase breaks down lactose sugar in milk for lactose-intolerant individuals.
 Beverage Industry: Pectinases clarify fruit juices and improve filtration efficiency.
 Fruit and Vegetable Processing: Pectinases and cellulases help extract juices,
improve texture, and reduce viscosity.
 Fats and Oils: Lipases break down fats and oils, modifying texture and flavor in
products like margarine.

9|Page
ENZYMES IN TEXTILE PROCESSING:
Enzymes are revolutionizing the textile industry by offering a more sustainable and efficient
alternative to traditional chemical processes. Here's a breakdown of their key roles:

Benefits of Enzymes:
 Eco-friendly alternative: Enzymes are replacing harsh chemicals in many textile
processes, reducing pollution and making the industry more sustainable.
 Specificity: Enzymes act on specific targets like starch or hydrogen peroxide, without
harming the fibres themselves.
 Mild conditions: Enzymes work effectively at lower temperatures compared to
traditional methods, reducing energy consumption.

Types of Enzymes Used:

Different enzymes are used for various stages of textile processing, including:
 Desizing: Amylase enzymes break down starch-based sizing applied to yarns during
weaving.
 Scouring: Cellulase and pectinase enzymes remove natural impurities like waxes and
pectins from cotton fibres.
 Bleaching: Laccase enzymes help bleach textiles and degrade excess hydrogen
peroxide used in the process.
 Denim finishing: Cellulase enzymes create a worn-out, distressed look on denim
fabrics.
 Wastewater treatment: Lactase enzymes can decolorize textile dyes in wastewater,
making it more eco-friendly.

ENZYMES IN DETERGENT FORMULATION:

Enzymes play a crucial role in modern detergent formulations, offering several advantages over
traditional cleaning methods. Here's a breakdown:

Types of Enzymes in Detergents:

 Proteases: These enzymes break down proteins, tackling stains like blood, grass,
sweat, and food residues.
 Lipases: They specialize in breaking down fats and oils, effectively removing greasy
stains and food residue.
 Amylases: These enzymes target starch-based stains like sauces, gravies, and cereal
residue.
 Mannanases: These enzymes break down hemicelluloses, a component of certain food stains
and plant-based materials.

Benefits of Using Enzymes in Detergents:

 Enhanced Stain Removal: Enzymes specifically target and break down various types
of stains, leading to more effective cleaning.
 Lower Washing Temperatures: Enzymes work effectively at lower temperatures,
saving energy and reducing wear and tear on fabrics.
 Environmental Advantages: Using enzymes can reduce the need for harsh chemicals
in detergents, making them more environmentally friendly.
 Improved Fabric Care: Cellulases can help maintain the softness and texture of
fabrics.
10 | P a g e
How Enzymes Work in Detergents:
1. Stain Breakdown: Enzymes act as biological catalysts, breaking down complex stains
into smaller, water-soluble components.
2. Surfactant Action: Detergents contain surfactants that lift and suspend the broken-
down stain particles, allowing them to be rinsed away.
3. Effective at Lower Temperatures: Enzymes function optimally at lower temperatures
compared to traditional cleaning methods, leading to energy savings.

QUESTION BANK:
1. What is Cellulose-Based water filters? Write a note on properties of cellulose based
water filters.
2. Mention advantages of Cellulose-Based water filters.
3. What are bioplastics? Distinguish between PLA and PHA bioplastics.
4. How DNA vaccines are useful for Rabies?
5. How RNA vaccines are useful for Covid-19?
6. Write a short note on Whey Protein.
7. Explain Meat analogues and Plant based proteins.
8. Explain the production of biodiesel from lipids.
9. Write a note on Detergents.
10. What are Enzymes? Explain the role of enzymes in biosensors.
11. Briefly explain Glucose Oxidase in Biosensors.
12. Explain the role of enzymes in food processing.
13. Explain the role of enzymes in textile processing.
14. Explain the role of enzymes in detergent formulation.

11 | P a g e