1.What is SQL?

Structured query language (SQL) is a programming language for storing and

processing information in a relational database. A relational database stores
information in tabular form, with rows and columns representing different data
attributes and the various relationships between the data values.
2.Explain the differences between SQL and NoSQL databases.
While SQL databases are best used for structured data, NoSQL databases are suitable
for structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data.
3.Explain different types of joins with examples.
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them.
Different Types of SQL JOINs:
(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table.
4.What is a primary key in SQL?
The primary key in SQL is a single, or a group of fields or columns that can
uniquely identify a row in a table. Putting it simply, it is a column that accepts
unique values for each row.
5.What is a foreign key?
A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table. The table with the foreign key is called the child
table, and the table with the primary key is called the referenced or parent table.
A foreign key links two or more tables in a relational database.
6. How do you optimize SQL queries?
*Use indexes effectively.
*Avoid SELECT * and retrieve only necessary columns.
*Optimize JOIN operations.
*Minimize the use of subqueries.
*Avoid redundant or unnecessary data retrieval.
*Utilize stored procedures.
*Consider partitioning and sharding.
*Normalize database tables.
7. How do you create a stored procedure?
A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be
reused over and over again.
So if you have an SQL query that you write over and over again, save it as a stored
procedure, and then just call it to execute it.
Expand the database that you want, and then expand Programmability. Right-click
Stored Procedures, and then select New > Stored Procedure. A new query window opens
with a template for the stored procedure.
8. What is a trigger in SQL?
A trigger is a database object that is automatically executed or fired when certain
events (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) occur on a table.
9. Explain ACID properties in SQL:
ACID stands for:
• Atomicity: All operations in a transaction are completed; if not, the transaction
is aborted.
• Consistency: The database remains in a consistent state before and after the
transaction.
• Isolation: Each transaction is isolated from others.
• Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its changes are permanent.
10. What is a transaction in SQL?
A transaction is a group of one or more SQL operations that are executed as a
single unit of work. It ensures that database changes are reliable and consistent.
11. Explain normalization and denormalization.
• Normalization: The process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy
and improve data integrity. It involves dividing large tables into smaller ones and
linking them using foreign keys.
• Denormalization: The process of combining tables to reduce the number of joins in
queries and improve performance, at the cost of redundancy.
12. What is a view in SQL?
A view is a virtual table that represents the result of a query. It does not store
data but provides a way to simplify complex queries.
13. How do you prevent SQL injection?
• Use Prepared Statements: Ensure user inputs are parameterized.
• Use Stored Procedures: Avoid dynamic SQL where possible.
• Input Validation: Sanitize inputs by checking type, length, format, etc.
• Escape Special Characters: Use proper escaping when necessary.
14. What are indexes in SQL?
An index is a database object that improves the speed of data retrieval operations
on a table at the cost of additional space and write-time overhead.
15. Difference between UNION and UNION ALL:
• UNION: Combines results of two queries, removing duplicate rows.
• UNION ALL: Combines results of two queries, including duplicate rows.
16. Types of SQL Commands:
SQL commands are grouped into categories:
• DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, ALTER, DROP.
• DML (Data Manipulation Language): SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
• DCL (Data Control Language): GRANT, REVOKE.
• TCL (Transaction Control Language): COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
17. What is a JOIN in SQL, and what are its types?
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them.
Different Types of SQL JOINs:
(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table.
18. What is a constraint in SQL? Name a few.
A constraint is a rule applied to columns in a table to enforce data integrity.
• Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row.
• Foreign Key: Ensures referential integrity.
• Unique: Ensures no duplicate values.
• Not Null: Ensures a column cannot have NULL values.
• Check: Ensures values in a column satisfy a specific condition.
19. What is a trigger in SQL?
A trigger is a database object that is automatically executed or fired when certain
events (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) occur on a table.
20. What are aggregate functions? Can you name a few?
Aggregate functions operate on a set of rows and return a single value.
• COUNT: Counts the number of rows.
• SUM: Calculates the sum of values.
• AVG: Calculates the average value.
• MIN: Returns the minimum value.
• MAX: Returns the maximum value.
21. Explain different types of joins with examples.
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related
column between them.
Different Types of SQL JOINs:
(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table.
22. How do you implement error handling in SQL?
Error handling in SQL allows you to manage and respond to errors that occur during
the execution of your queries or scripts.
A group of Transact-SQL statements can be enclosed in a TRY block. If an error
occurs in the TRY block, control is usually passed to another group of statements
that is enclosed in a CATCH block.
23. Explain all DDL & DML commands?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to interact with databases. The commands in
SQL are categorized into different types based on the operations they perform. Two
important categories are DDL (Data Definition Language) and DML (Data Manipulation
Language).
DDL (Data Definition Language):
DDL commands are used to define, modify, or delete database structures such as
tables, indexes, and schemas. These commands affect the structure of the database
but do not directly manipulate the data inside the tables.
CREATE:
• Used to create new database objects like tables, views, indexes, or databases.
ALTER:
• Used to modify an existing database object, such as adding, deleting, or
modifying columns in a table.
DROP:
• Used to delete an existing database object, like a table, view, or index.
TRUNCATE:
• Used to delete all rows from a table, but the table structure (columns,
constraints) remains.
RENAME:
• Used to rename a database object like a table or column.
DML (Data Manipulation Language):
DML commands are used to manipulate the data inside the database tables. These
commands allow you to insert, update, delete, or retrieve data from tables.
Common DML Commands:
SELECT:
• Used to retrieve data from one or more tables.
INSERT:
• Used to add new rows (data) into a table.
UPDATE:
• Used to modify existing data in a table.
DELETE:
• Used to remove data (rows) from a table.
24. SQL Query for Retrieving Tables.
To retrieve a list of all tables in a database, you can use the SHOW TABLES command
in MySQL, or a query against the information_schema in other databases.
25. Query for Selecting Columns from a Table
To select specific columns from a table, you use the SELECT statement and specify
the columns.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, column3
FROM table_name;
26. Query for Outputting Data Using a Constraint.
To retrieve data based on a condition (a constraint), you can use the WHERE clause.
Syntax:
SELECT *
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name = 'value';
27. Query for Outputting Sorted Data Using ORDER BY.
To sort the results, use ORDER BY. You can sort in ascending (ASC) or descending
(DESC) order.
Syntax:
SELECT *
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC; -- For ascending order.
28. SQL Query for Outputting Sorted Data Using GROUP BY
GROUP BY is used to group rows that have the same values in specified columns into
aggregated data, often used with functions like COUNT(), SUM(), etc.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name, COUNT(*)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name;
29. Data Manipulation Using COUNT
COUNT() is an aggregate function that returns the number of rows in a group.
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM table_name;
30. SQL Query for Listing All Views
To list all views in the database, you can query the information_schema.views
table.
• PostgreSQL, SQL Server, MySQL:
Syntax:
SELECT table_name
FROM information_schema.views
WHERE table_schema = 'public';
31. Query to Display Primary Keys.
To retrieve information about primary keys in a table, you can use the
information_schema database.
32. Query for Displaying Foreign Keys.
To display foreign keys in a table, you can use the information_schema to look for
constraints of type FOREIGN KEY.
33. Swapping the Values of Two Columns in a Table.
To swap values of two columns for certain rows, you can use the UPDATE statement.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = column2, column2 = column1;
34. SQL Query for Dropping a View
To drop (delete) an existing view, you can use the DROP VIEW command.
Syntax:
DROP VIEW view_name;
35. Displaying Triggers
To display triggers in the database, you can query the information_schema.triggers
table