Eletricity Transmission and Distributionc

Electric power transmission is the process in the transfer of electrical power to consumers and refers to the 'bulk' transfer of electrical power from one location to another. Transfer of electrical power from Generating Stations to the industrial, commercial or residential consumers is as important as power generation. Typically power transmission is between the power plant and a substation in the vicinity of a populated area. To satisfy various instantaneous demands from consumers requires an uninterrupted flow of electricity. In the energy delivery industry, the transmission system functions in much the same way as the interstate highway system, serving as its major transport arteries. A power transmission system is sometimes referred to as a "grid", which is a fully connected network of transmission lines. The Regional Power Grids are established for optimal utilization of the power generated from the unevenly distributed power generating stations, by having intra-regional and inter-regional power exchanges depending upon day-to-day power availability and load conditions. The surplus power is transferred to the power deficit regions. Due to the large amount of electric power involved, transmission normally takes place at high voltage (110 kV or above). Electric power is usually sent over long distances through overhead power transmission lines. Power is transmitted underground in densely populated areas, such as large cities, but is typically avoided due to the high capacitive and resistive losses incurred. Redundant paths and lines are provided so that power can be routed from any power plant to any load center, through a variety of routes, based on the economics of the transmission path and the cost of power. The grid consists of two infrastructures: the high-voltage transmission systems, which carry electricity from the power plants and transmit it hundreds of miles away, and the lower-voltage distribution systems, which draw electricity from the transmission lines and distribute it to individual customers. High voltage is used for transmission lines to minimize electrical losses; however, high voltage is impractical for distribution lines. Electricity distribution is the penultimate process in the delivery of electric power, i.e. the part between transmission and user purchase from an electricity retailer. It is generally considered to include medium-voltage (less than 50kV) power lines, low-voltage electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage (less than 1000V) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters. This interface features transformers that "step down" the transmission voltages to lower voltages for the distribution

systems. Transformers located along the distribution lines further step down the voltage for household use. Substations also include electrical switchgear and circuit breakers to protect the transformers and the transmission system from electrical failures on the distribution lines. Circuit breakers are also located along the distribution lines to locally isolate electrical problems (such as short circuits caused by downed power lines).

Captive Power Generation

Captive Power refers to generation from a unit set up by industry for its exclusive consumption. The estimates on captive power capacity in the country vary with the Central Electricity Authority putting the figure at about 11600 MW while industry experts feel that it is much higher, close to 20000 MW. The industrial sector is the largest consumer of electricity. Besides purchasing power from the utilities, a number of industries, viz. aluminum, cement, fertilizer, iron, steel, paper, sugar etc. have their own captive power plants either to supplement the electricity supply from the utilities or for generating electricity as a by-product through co-generation. Captive power plants can be set up by industries to meet their own power requirements to enable them to tide over problems due to power shortages and poor quality of supply. They can use any easily available fuel - coal, gas, diesel, fuel oil - or any other conventional or non-conventional so long as they are able to generate stable power for their requirements all through the year without any interruption.

Electrical Substation
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several steps. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to

only one station, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

Elements Of Substation
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation. Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions. Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded (UK: earthed) to protect people from high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a hazard of electrocution. 1. Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.

2.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

3. Busbar:
In electrical power distribution, a busbar is a strip of copper or aluminum that conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. The size of the busbar determines the maximum amount of current that can be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm) or more as busbars, and an aluminum smelter will have very large busbars used to carry tens of thousands of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce aluminum from molten salts. Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect makes 5060 Hz AC busbars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has higher stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which allows a greater span between busbar supports in outdoor switchyards. A busbar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely surround it. Busbars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal earthed enclosure or by elevation out of normal reach. Neutral busbars may also be insulated. Earth busbars are typically bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure. Busbars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct or busway, segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus. Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or clamp connections. Often joints between high-current bus sections have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce the contact resistance. At extra-high voltages (more than 300 kV) in outdoor buses, corona around the connections becomes a source of radio-

frequency interference and power loss, so connection fittings designed for these voltages are used. Busbars are typically contained inside of either a distribution board or busway.

4. Relays:
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established, selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) curves. Such relays may be elaborate, using arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks. Protection relays respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency. Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. An important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection, with many individual electromechanical devices. The various protective functions available on a given relay are denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For example, a relay including function 51 would be a timed overcurrent protective relay. Design and theory of these protective devices is an important part of the education of an electrical engineer who specializes in power systems. Today these devices are nearly entirely replaced with microprocessorbased digital protective relays (numerical relays) that emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision and convenience in application. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world.

5. Ground Wire:

In electrical engineering, ground or earth may be the reference point in an electrical circuit from which other voltages are measured, or a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to the Earth. Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. In mains powered equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent contact with a dangerous voltage if electrical insulation fails. Connections to ground limit the build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or when repairing electronic devices. In some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor. For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an appropriate current-carrying capability in order to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit theory, a "ground" is usually idealized as an infinite source or sinks for charge, which can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid. Stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard. The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical and electronics applications that circuits in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and media players as well as circuits in vehicles such as ships, aircraft, and spacecraft may be spoken of as having a "ground" connection without any actual connection to the Earth. This is usually a large conductor attached to one side of the power supply (such as the "ground plane" on a printed circuit board) which serves as the common return path for current from many different components in the circuit.

6. Overhead powerlines:
An overhead power line is an electric power transmission line suspended by towers or utility poles. Since most of the insulation is provided by air, overhead power lines are generally the lowest-cost method of transmission for large quantities of electric energy. Towers for support of the lines are made of wood (as-grown or laminated), steel (either lattice structures or tubular poles), concrete, aluminum, and occasionally reinforced plastics. The bare wire conductors on the line are generally made of aluminum (either plain or reinforced with steel, or sometimes composite materials), though some copper wires are used in mediumvoltage distribution and low-voltage connections to customer premises. A major goal of overhead power line design is to maintain adequate clearance between energized conductors and the ground so as to prevent dangerous contact with the line. [1] Today overhead lines are routinely operated at voltages exceeding 765,000 volts between conductors, with even higher voltages possible in some cases. Overhead power transmission lines are classified in the electrical power industry by the range of voltages:

Low voltage less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a residential or small commercial customer and the utility. Medium Voltage (Distribution) between 1000 volts (1 kV) and to about 33 kV, used for distribution in urban and rural areas. High Voltage (subtransmission less than 100 kV; subtransmission or transmission at voltage such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for subtransmission and transmission of bulk quantities of electric power and connection to very large consumers. Extra High Voltage (transmission) over 230 kV, up to about 800 kV, used for long distance, very high power transmission. Ultra High Voltage higher than 800 kV.

7. Lighting Arrester:

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) have been used for power system protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth.

8. Current Transformers (CTs): These can be used for monitoring

current or for transforming primary current into reduced secondary current used for meters, relays, control equipment and other instruments. CTs that transform current isolate the high voltage primary, permit grounding of the secondary, and step-down the magnitude of the measured current to a standard value that can be safely handled by the instrument. To determine which CT is appropriate for a particular application, it is important to understand the following characteristics that are used to classify current transformers.

Ratio
The CT ratio is the ratio of primary current input to secondary current output at full load. For example, a CT with a ratio of 300:5 is rated for 300 primary amps at full load and will produce 5 amps of secondary current when 300 amps flow through the primary. If the primary current changes the secondary current output will change accordingly. For example, if 150 amps flow through the 300 amp rated primary the secondary current output will be 2.5 amps (150:300 = 2.5:5).

Polarity
The Polarity of a CT is determined by the direction the coils are wound around the core for the CT (clockwise or counterclockwise) and by the way the leads are brought out of the transformer case. All current transformers are subtractive polarity and will have the following designations to guide

proper installation: ((H1) Primary current, line facing direction; (H2) Primary current, load facing direction; and (X1) Secondary current. Taking care to observe proper polarity is important when installing and connecting current transformers to power metering and protective relays.

Accuracy Class
Accuracy Class describes the performance characteristics of a CT and the maximum burden allowable on the CTs secondary. Depending on their Accuracy Class, CTs are divided into Metering Accuracy CTs or Relaying Accuracy CTs (Protection CTs). A CT can have ratings for both groups. Metering Accuracy CTs are rated for specified standard burdens and designed to be highly accurate from very low current to the maximum current rating of the CT. Because of their high degree of accuracy, these CTs are typically used by utility companies for measuring usage for billing purposes. Relaying Accuracy CTs are not as accurate as Metering Accuracy CTs. They are designed to perform with a reasonable degree of accuracy over a wider range of current. These CTs are typically used for supplying current to protective relays. The wider range of current allows the protective relay to operate at different fault levels. The CT Accuracy Class is listed on the label or the nameplate of the CT and is comprised of three parts: rated ratio accuracy rating, class rating, and maximum burden (Figure 3). Rated Ratio Accuracy Rating The first part of the CT Accuracy Class is a number which is the rated ratio expressed as a percent. For example, a CT with an accuracy class of 0.3 is certified by the manufacturer to be accurate to within 0.3 percent of its rated ratio value for a primary current of 100 percent of rated ratio. CT Class RatingThe second part of the CT Accuracy Class is a letter that designates the application for which the CT is rated. Metering CTs are designated with the letter B. Relaying CTs have several different letter designations: C The CT has low leakage flux. (Accuracy can be calculated before manufacturing.) T The CT can have significant leakage flux. (Accuracy must be determined by testing at the factory.)

H The CT accuracy is applicable within the entire range of secondary currents from 5 to 20 times the nominal CT rating. (Typically wound CTs.) L The CT accuracy applies at the maximum rated secondary burden at 20 time rated only. The ratio accuracy can be up to four times greater than the listed value, depending on connected burden and fault current. (Typically window, busing, or bar-type CTs.)

Burden
The third part of the CT Accuracy Class is the maximum burden allowed for the CT. This is the load that may be imposed on a transformer secondary without causing an error greater than the stated accuracy classification. For Metering Class CTs burden is expressed as ohms impedance. For Protection-class CTs burden is express as volt-amperes (VA). Protectionclass CT burdens are displayed as the maximum secondary volts allowable if 20 times the CT rating were to flow through the secondary circuit (100 amperes with a five ampere nominal CT secondary).

CT Shorting
CTs should remain shorted during installation until secondary wiring is complete. A shorting screw inserted through the shorting bar ties isolated terminal strip points together. Any shorting winding effectively shorts the entire CT.

Potential Transformer:
The potential transformer works along the same principle of other transformers. It converts voltages from high to low. It will take the thousands of volts behind power transmission systems and step the voltage down to something that meters can handle. These transformers

work for single and three phase systems, and are attached at a point where it is convenient to measure the voltage. The biggest feature that a potential transformer has over regular transformers is that the voltage conversion is constant and linear. That is to say, if the first day of operation 50,000 volts is stepped to 50 volts, then on the last day of operation 50,000 steps to 50 volts. Linearity states that when the voltage drops in a linear fashion, then the stepped down voltage drops accordingly. This feature ensures that the meter will scale accordingly. The potential transformer makes the measure of very high voltages much easier. Potential Transformer is designed for monitoring single-phase and threephase power line voltages in power metering applications. The ratio and phase-angle inaccuracies of any standard ASA accuracy class of potential transformer are so small that they may be neglected for protective-relaying purposes if the burden is within the "thermal" voltampere rating of the transformer. This thermal volt-ampere rating corresponds to the full-load rating of a power transformer. It is higher than the volt-ampere rating used to classify potential transformers as to accuracy for metering purposes. Based on the thermal volt-ampere rating, the equivalent-circuit impedances of potential transformers are comparable to those of distribution transformers. The "burden" is the total external volt-ampere load on the secondary at rated secondary voltage. Where several loads are connected in parallel, it is usually sufficiently accurate to add their individual volt-amperes arithmetically to determine the total volt-ampere burden. If a potential transformer has acceptable accuracy at its rated voltage, it is suitable over the range from zero to 110% of rated less voltage. Operation in excess of 10% overvoltage may cause increased errors and excessive heating. Where precise accuracy data are required, they can be obtained from ratiocorrection-factor curves and phase-angle-correction curves supplied by the manufacturer.

The primary terminals can be connected either in line-to-line or in line-toneutral configuration. Fused transformer models are designated by a suffix of "F" for one fuse or "FF" for two fuses. A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take readings from electrical service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is normally capable of handling without at potential transformer

9.Electricity Pylon:
A transmission tower (colloquially termed an electricity pylon) is a tall structure, usually a steel lattice tower, used to support an overhead power line. They are used in high-voltage AC and DC systems, and come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Typical height ranges from 15 to 55 meters (49 to 180 ft), although heights in excess of 300 meters (980 ft) exist. In addition to steel, other materials may be used, including concrete and wood. Four major functions of transmission towers are in use: suspension towers, terminal towers, tension towers, and transposition towers. Some transmission towers combine these basic functions. Transmission towers and their overhead power lines are often considered to be a form of visual pollution. Methods to reduce the visual impact include undergrounding.

Transmission substation: A transmission substation connects

two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains highvoltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAR compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems. Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and control equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented using International Standards such as IEC61850.

Distribution Substation:
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution

substations are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.

Collector Substation:
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required. It somewhat resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC static inverter plant. Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in the Czech Republic, where power is collected from nearby lignite-fired power plants. If no transformers are installed for increase of voltage to transmission level, the substation is a switching station.