AOT433

ACTUATORS AND CONTROLS

IN AIRCRAFT
 Syllabus
• MODULE 1
Introduction to oil hydraulics and pneumatics - their structure - advantages
and limitations – Properties of fluids - Fluids for hydraulic systems -
governing laws - Distribution of fluid power - ISO symbols - energy losses
in hydraulic systems - Applications- Basic types and constructions of
Hydraulic pumps and motors - Pump and motor analysis - Performance
curves and parameters.
INTRODUCTION
Actuators and controls play crucial roles in the operation and control of aircraft. They
are responsible for converting control inputs from pilots or automated systems into the
desired movements and adjustments of various flight surfaces and systems. Here's an
overview of actuators and controls used in aircraft:
1.Flight Control Surfaces:
1. Ailerons: Located on the wings' trailing edges, ailerons control the roll
movement of the aircraft by deflecting up or down.
2. Elevators: Positioned on the horizontal stabilizer, elevators control the pitch
movement by deflecting up or down.
3. Rudder: Found on the vertical stabilizer, the rudder controls the yaw movement
of the aircraft by deflecting left or right.
2. Primary Flight Control System: The primary flight control system is responsible for
transmitting pilot inputs to the flight control surfaces and consists of the following
components:
1. Control Columns/Yokes: Used by pilots to input pitch and roll commands.
2. Rudder Pedals: Used by pilots to input yaw commands.
3. Control Cables/Hydraulic Systems: Transmit the control inputs from the cockpit to the
actuators that move the flight control surfaces.
1.Secondary Flight Control Surfaces: These surfaces enhance the aircraft's performance and
are often controlled automatically by the aircraft's flight control system.
1. Flaps: Located on the wings' trailing edges, flaps are used to increase lift and drag
during takeoff and landing.
2. Slats: Positioned at the front of the wings, slats increase lift at lower speeds and during
takeoff and landing.
3. Spoilers: Found on the wings, spoilers help reduce lift and increase drag, aiding in
descent and speed control.
1.Actuators: Actuators are devices that convert electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic signals into
physical movement. Different types of actuators are used in aircraft:

1. Hydraulic Actuators: Commonly used for large flight control surfaces due to their high
power output.

2. Electromechanical Actuators: Used for smaller control surfaces and in fly-by-wire

systems.

3. Pneumatic Actuators: These are less common and typically used in specific aircraft
systems.

2.Fly-by-Wire (FBW) System: Some modern aircraft use fly-by-wire technology, where the
traditional mechanical control linkages are replaced by electrical signals. The pilot's inputs
are transmitted electronically to the flight control surfaces through a flight control computer.
 Introduction to oil hydraulics and pneumatics
Oil hydraulics and pneumatics are two distinct branches of fluid power
systems that use different types of fluids to transmit power and control
mechanical processes
Oil Hydraulics: Oil hydraulics, also known as hydraulic systems, utilize
hydraulic fluid (typically oil-based) to transfer power and control mechanical
motion. The key components of an oil hydraulic system include a hydraulic
pump, hydraulic cylinders or motors, control valves, and hydraulic fluid
reservoir.
• Applications: Hydraulic systems are commonly used in heavy machinery,
construction equipment, aircraft landing gear, manufacturing machinery, and
various industrial applications where high force and precise control are
required.
Basic Components of Hydraulic systems

https://www.e4training.com/hyd_newbie/basic_comp3.php 7
 Basic Components of Hydraulic systems
Functions of the components are as follows:
• The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into
mechanical power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g.,
hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or
rotary motion, respectively.
• The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
• Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing
through the circuit.
• External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.

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 Basic Components of Hydraulic systems

• Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.

• Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.

• Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system
clean and efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.

• Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in

the hydraulic fluid.

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 Hydraulic systems

Advantages of Hydraulic System

• Large load capacity with almost high accuracy and precision.

• Smooth movement.
• Automatic lubricating provision to reduce wear.
• Division and distribution of hydraulic power is simpler.
• Limiting and balancing of hydraulic forces are easily performed

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 Hydraulic systems
Disadvantages of Hydraulic System

• Hydraulic elements need to be machined to a high degree of precision.

• Leakage of hydraulic oil poses problems to hydraulic operators.

• Special treatment is needed to protect them from rust, corrosion, dirt etc.

• Hydraulic oil may pose problems if it disintegrates due to aging and chemical
deterioration.

• Hydraulic oils are messy and almost highly flammable.

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 Pneumatic System
• Pneumatics: Pneumatics uses compressed air as the working fluid to
transmit power and control motion. The components of a pneumatic system
include an air compressor, pneumatic actuators (usually pneumatic
cylinders), control valves, and an air reservoir or receiver.
 Basic Components of Pneumatic systems
The functions of the components are as follows:
• The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to
perform useful work.
• The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
• The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
• The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed
air.
• External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
• The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

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 Pneumatic systems

Advantages of Pneumatic System

• Low inertia effect of pneumatic components due to light density of air.
• System is light in weight.
• Comparatively easy operations of valves.
• Power losses and leakages are less in pneumatic systems.
• Low cost.

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Hydraulic systems Pneumatic systems
The working fluid is hydraulic oil. Working fluid is compressed air.
As oil is incompressible, oil can be Air is compressible; hence air can be
pressurized to very high pressure. (500 bar or pressurized to lesser pressure. (Only up to 10
even more) bar approx.)
Since pressure is high, the force developed is Since pressure is very less, the force
also very high (thousands of tones). developed is very less (up to I ton)
Since pressure is high, components are very Components of the pneumatic system are
strong, made of steel, and are heavy. lighter in weight, are made of aluminum.
As oil has more viscosity, it cannot flow fast. Air has very less viscosity, it can flow fast.
Hence hydraulic systems are slower in Hence pneumatic systems are quicker in
operation. operation.
Due to continuous recirculation, the The harder it runs, the cooler it works. Free
temperature of oil increases. expansion of air in cylinders and motors
causes a chilling effect.
Hydraulic systems Pneumatic systems
Leakage of oil results in dirty and slippery The very clean and dry surrounding is
Surroundings that may lead to accidents. maintained.
The pump used is a positive displacement No need for a pressure relief valve.
pump, So a pressure relief valve is necessary
There is no need for a separable lubrication A lubricator is necessary. Oil is mixed with
System, because, hydraulic oil itself is a the compressed air in the lubricator and then
lubricant. supplied to the system.
Hydraulic oils are petroleum-based oils; they No chance of fire hazard. Hence pneumatic
are inflammable and there is every chance of tools are preferably used inside mines, where
fire hazard if neglected. flammable gasses may present.

Applications: CNC. Machine tools, earth- Applications: Material handling systems,

moving machines, automobiles. aviation etc. hand tools mining works, automation,
automobiles, etc.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:
1. Viscosity: It is a measure of the fluid’s internal resistance offered to flow. Viscosity is the
most important factor. If the viscosity of the hydraulic oil is higher than recommended, the
system will be affected in the following manner.
1. The viscous oil may not be able to pass through the pipes.
2. The working temperature will increases because there will be internal friction.
3. The consumption of power will increase
If the viscosity of the oil is lesser than recommended then,
1. The internal and external leakage will increase
2. It cannot lubricate properly and will lead to rapid wear of the moving parts.
2. Viscosity Index: This value shows how temperature affects the viscosity of oil. The
viscosity of the oil decreases with increase in temperature and vice versa. The rate of change
of viscosity with temperature is indicated on an arbitrary scale called viscosity index (VI). The
lower the viscosity index, the greater the variation in viscosity with changes in temperature
and vice versa
3. Oxidation Stability: The most important property of an hydraulic oil is its oxidation
stability. Oxidation is caused by a chemical reaction between the oxygen of the
dissolved air and the oil. The oxidation of the oil creates impurities like sludge,
insoluble gum and soluble acidic products. The soluble acidic products cause corrosion
and insoluble products make the operation sluggish.
4. Demulsibility: The ability of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly from moisture and
successfully resist emulsification is known as Demulsibility. If oil emulsifies with water
the emulsion will promote the destruction of lubricating value and sealant properties.
Highly refined oils are basically water resistance by nature.
5. Lubricity: Wear results in increase clearance which leads to all sorts of operational
difficulties including fall of efficiency. At the time of selecting a hydraulic oil care must
be taken to select one which will be able to lubricate the moving parts efficiently.
6. Rust Prevention: The moisture entering into the hydraulic system with air causes
the parts made ferrous materials to rust. This rust if passed through the precision made
pumps and valves may scratch the nicely polished surfaces. So additives named
inhibitors are added to the oil to keep the moisture away from the surface.
7. Pour Point: The temperature at which oil will clot is referred to as the pour point
i.e. the lowest temperature at which the oil is able to flow easily. It is of great
importance in cold countries where the system is exposed to very low temperature.
8. Flash Point and Fire Point: Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives
off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied.
The minimum temperature at which the hydraulic fluid will catch fire and continue
burning is called fire point.
9. Neutralization Number: The neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid. This is referred to as the PH value of the fluid. High
acidity causes the oxidation rate in an oil to increase rapidly.
10. Density: It is that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance.
11. Compressibility: All fluids are compressible to some extent. Compressibility of a
liquid causes the liquid to act much like a stiff spring. The coefficient of
compressibility is the fractional change in a unit volume of liquid per unit change of
pressure
 VARIOUS HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:
1. Water: The least expensive hydraulic fluid is water. Water is treated with chemicals
before being used in a fluid power system. This treatment removes undesirable
contaminates.
Advantages: Inexpensive, Readily available, Fire resistance
Disadvantage: No lubricity, Corrosive, Temperature limitations
2. Petroleum Oils: These are the most common among the hydraulic fluids which are
used in a wide range of hydraulic applications. The characteristic of petroleum based
hydraulic oils are controlled by the type of crude oil used. Naphthenic oils have low
viscosity index so it is unsuitable where the oil temperatures vary too widely. The
aromatics have a higher presence of benzene and they are more compatible with
moderate temperature variation. Paraffinic oils have a high viscosity index and they are
more suitable for the system where the temperature varies greatly.
Advantages: Excellent lubricity, Reasonable cost, Non-corrosive.
Disadvantage: Tendency to oxidize rapidly, Not fire resistance.
3. Water Glycols: These are solutions contains 35 to 55% water, glycol and
water soluble thickener to improve viscosity. Additives are also added to improve
anticorrosion, anti wear and lubricity properties.
Advantages: Better fire resistance, Less expensive, Compatible with most pipe
compounds and seals
Disadvantage: Low viscosity, Poor corrosion resistance, not suitable for high
loads
4. Water Oil Emulsions: These are water-oil mixtures. They are of two types oil-
in-water emulsions or water-in-oil emulsions. The oil-in-water emulsion has
water as the continuous base and the oil is present in lesser amounts as the
dispersed media. In the water-in-oil emulsion, the oil is in continuous phase and
water is the dispersed media.
Advantages: High viscosity index, Oxidation stability, Film strength
Disadvantage: Depletion of water due to evaporation decreases fire resistance,
Demulsification may be problem with water-in-oil emulsions.

5. Phosphate Ester: It results from the incorporation of phosphorus into

organic molecules. They have high thermal stability. They serve as an excellent
detergent and prevent building up of sludge.
Advantages: Excellent fire resistance, Good lubricity, Non corrosive
Disadvantage: Not compatible with many plastics and elastomers, Expensive
6. Vegetable oils:

• Vegetable-based oils are biodegradable and are environmental safe.

• They have good lubrication properties, moderate viscosity and are less
expensive.

• They can be formulated to have good fire resistance characteristics

with certain additives. Vegetable oils have a tendency to easily oxidize
and absorb moisture.
24
 Pascal’s Law
• Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right
angles to the containing surfaces.

Multiplication of Force

The most useful feature of fluid

power is the ease with which it is able to
multiply force. This is accomplished by
using an output piston that is larger than
the input piston. 25
 Governing Laws

Force displacement relation

• A hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the volume

displaced by the piston is equal to the volume displaced at the output
piston.

Comparing we get,

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 Governing Laws

Force power relation

• A hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the

quantity of oil displaced by the input piston is equal to the
quantity of oil gained and displaced at the output piston.
• Flow rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a
specified time.

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 Governing Laws

Force power relation

• A hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the
quantity of oil displaced by the input piston is equal to the
quantity of oil gained and displaced at the output piston.
• Flow rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a
specified time.

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• CONTINUITY EQUATION: It states that if no fluid is added or removed from the
pipe in any length then the mass passing across different sections shall be same.

𝐴1𝑉1=𝐴2𝑉2

• BERNOULLI’S EQUATION: It states that in an ideal incompressible fluid when the

flow is steady and continuous the sum of potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure
energy is constant across all cross sections of the pipe.
 Distribution of Fluid Power
• The size of pipe, tubing or hose for plumbing fluid power systems is very important.

• If the size with too small an inside cross-sectional area is used, the oil is forced to flow
at a high rate of speed, and this creates excessive power loss and heat generation in the
oil.

• If the size used is larger than necessary, then the power transfer is good and heat
generation is low but the time and cost of installation are more than they should be.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Choice of Distribution
• A fluid distribution system is composed of pipes, tubings, hose assemblies,
manifolds and fittings so arranged that the fluid is carried with minimum losses
from the reservoir through controls and working components and is then
returned.

• All materials used to convey fluid power are commonly classified as conductors
and the various fittings for connecting components are classified as connectors.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

• Conductors are generally steel and they may be coated with

cadmium or some other corrosion-resistant material.

• Stainless steel conductors or fittings may be used if extremely

corrosive environments are anticipated, but the high cost of such
conductors and fitting precludes the general use of this material.

• Copper can never be used in a hydraulic system because it

catalyzes the oxidation of petroleum fluids.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

• Zinc, magnesium and cadmium cannot be used because they are

rapidly corroded by glycol fluids.

• A galvanized pipe is unsatisfactory because galvanization tends to

flake off into the system.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

The following points must be considered both while designing the

system and selecting a conductor:

i) The working strength of conductor must be sufficient to contain

fluid under all normal operating conditions, and there must be
sufficient reserve strength to withstand shock loads due to system
operations.

ii) The mechanical strength of the conductor must be sufficient to

span the distance required by the machine configurations and to
withstand mechanical vibrations that may be encountered.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

iii) The interior surface of the conductor must be as smooth as

possible to minimize friction.

iv) The pipe size must be adequate to permit design flow at a

reasonable fluid velocity.

v) Conductors should be positioned so that they cannot be damaged

by normal operations at and around the machine.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

vi) Conductors should be supported in such a way that vibrations

and shocks to them are minimized.

Vii) Conductor runs may frequently be reduced by using manifolds

or by using machine structural components as conductors.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Conductor Sizing

The pressure rating of various conductors depends on the tensile

strength of the material used and the wall thickness of the
conductor.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Screwed Connections

• Steel piping in fluid power systems is most often joined by threaded connections.
Unfortunately, threading weakens the pipe thereby making it necessary to use heavier
walls than would otherwise be required.

• This difficulty can be overcome by welding, but welded sections are not desirable in fluid
power systems that require frequent disassembly.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Compression Joints

• Compression-type fittings comprise a loose ring having a cone-shaped nose that must
face the open end of a tube, a mating tapered barrel and a retaining nut.

• When the tube is pushed fully in the fitting and the retaining nut is tightened, the
compressive action forces the nose of the ring into the surface of the metal tube,
creating a permanent and very strong interference fit that is capable of withstanding
pressure in excess of 350 bar.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Plastic Conductors

• Plastic tubing is now available in polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and

nylon.

• The plastics are compatible with most hydraulic fluids, however, and could safely be
used in low-pressure applications.

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 Distribution of Fluid Power

Flexible Hoses

• Hose assemblies are primarily used to connect fluid power systems to actuators that
must be located on movable parts such as a cylinder coupled to a radius arm traversing
in an arc, or a motor driving a machine carriage.
• A hose is manufactured from natural and synthetic rubbers and several plastics.
• This material is supported by fabric or by wire cloth, and wire braid may be used
between plies or as an outside casing for high-pressure applications.

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 ISO Symbols

• The hydraulic and pneumatic elements such as cylinders and valves are
connected through pipelines to form a hydraulic or a pneumatic circuit.

• It is difficult to represent the complex functioning of these elements using

sketches. Therefore graphical symbols are used to indicate these elements.

• The symbols only specify the function of the element without indicating the
design of the element. Symbols also indicate the actuation method, direction of
flow of air and designation of the ports.

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ISO Symbols

Hydraulic Pump

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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ISO Symbols

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

• The resistance to flow is essentially a measure of the viscosity of a fluid. The greater the
viscosity of a fluid, the less readily it flows and the more is the energy required to move
it.

• This energy is lost because it is dissipated as heat.

• Various types of fittings, such as bends, couplings, tees, elbows, filters, strainers, etc., are
used in hydraulic systems. The nature of path through the valves and fittings determines
the amount of energy losses.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• Laminar flow is a streamline or viscous flow.

• Turbulent flow is characterized by a fluid flowing in random way.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Reynolds Number

• In the flow of a fluid through a completely filled passage, gravity

does not affect the flow pattern and hence significant forces are
inertial force and fluid friction due to viscosity

• Considering the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, the

parameter obtained is called the Reynolds number.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Reynolds Number

• Reynolds came to a significant conclusion that the nature of the

flow depends on the dimensionless parameter, that is,

• v is the fluid velocity

• D is the inside diameter of the pipe
• ρ is the fluid density
• μ is the absolute viscosity of the fluid
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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

• If Re is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

• If Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.

• Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 covers a critical zone

between laminar and turbulent flow.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Darcy–Weisbach Equation

• If a fluid flows through a length of pipe and pressure is measured

at two stations along the pipe, one finds that the pressure
decreases in the direction of flow.

• This pressure decrease is mainly due to the friction of the fluid

against the pipe wall.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Darcy–Weisbach Equation
• Head losses in a long pipe in which the velocity distribution has
become fully established or uniform along its length can be found
by Darcy’s equation as

• f is the Darcy friction factor

• L is the length of pipe (m)
• D is the inside diameter of the pipe (m)
• v is the average velocity (m/s)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2).
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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow

• Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes

experiencing laminar flow by noting that for laminar flow, the
friction factor equals the constant 64 divided by the Reynolds
number.

• Substituting this into Darcy’s equation gives the Hagen–Poiseuille

equation.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow

• Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes

experiencing turbulent flow. However, the friction factor in
turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe.
• The relative roughness of pipe is defined as the ratio of inside
surface roughness (ε) to the diameter (D).

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Valves and Fittings

• For many fluid power applications, the majority of the energy
losses occur in valves and fittings in which there is a change in the
cross-section of flow path and a change in the direction of the
flow.

• Tests have shown that head losses in valves and fittings are
proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Valves and Fittings

• Where K is called the loss coefficient of valve or fittings.

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Hydraulic PUmps

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 Hydraulic PUmps

Classification based on displacement

1. Positive displacement pump (Hydro static pumps)

❑These pumps deliver a constant volume of fluid in a cycle. The

discharge quantity per revolution is fixed in these pumps and they
produce fluid flow proportional to their displacement and rotor
speed.

❑Important positive displacement pumps are gear pumps, vane

pumps and piston pumps.

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 Hydraulic PUmps

Classification based on displacement

2. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps (Hydro dynamic pumps)

❑Fluid is pressurized by the rotation of the propeller and the fluid

pressure is proportional to the rotor speed. It is generally used for
low-pressure and high-volume flow applications.

❑Centrifugal pump is the common example of non-positive

displacement pumps.

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 Hydraulic PUmps

Classification based delivery

1. Constant Delivery Pumps

❑It always deliver the same quantity of fluid in a given time at the
operating speed and temperature.

2. Variable Delivery Pumps

❑The output of variable volume pumps may be varied either manually

or automatically with no change in the input speed to the pump.

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Gear Pumps
❑ Gear pump is a robust and simple positive displacement pump.
They are compact, relatively inexpensive and have few moving
parts.

❑Based upon the design, the gear pumps are classified as:

• External gear pumps

• Lobe pumps
• Internal gear pumps
• Gerotor pumps

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 Hydraulic PUmps
External Gear Pump
❑It has two meshed gears revolving about their respective axes. These
gears are the only moving parts in the pump.

❑One of the gears is coupled with a prime mover and is called as

driving gear and another is called as driven gear.

❑The rotating gear carries the fluid from the tank to the outlet pipe.
The suction side is towards the portion whereas the gear teeth come
out of the mesh.

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Hydraulic PUmps
External Gear Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
External Gear Pump
❑When the gears rotate, volume of the chamber expands leading to
pressure drop below atmospheric value.

❑Therefore the vacuum is created and the fluid is pushed into the void
due to atmospheric pressure.

❑The fluid is trapped between housing and rotating teeth of the gears.
The discharge side of pump is towards the portion where the gear
teeth run into the mesh and the volume decreases between meshing
teeth.

❑The pump has a positive internal seal against leakage; therefore, the
fluid is forced into the outlet port.
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 Hydraulic PUmps
Lobe Pump
❑Lobe pumps work on the similar principle of working as that of
external gear pumps.
❑Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the
gearbox.
❑Similar to the external gear pump, the lobes rotate to create
expanding volume at the inlet. Now, the fluid flows into the cavity
and is trapped by the lobes.
❑Fluid travels around the interior of casing in the pockets between the
lobes and the casing. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid to
pass through the outlet port. The bearings are placed out of the
pumped liquid. Therefore the pressure is limited by the bearing
location and shaft deflection.

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Hydraulic PUmps
Lobe Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Internal Gear Pump
❑It comprises of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent-
shaped seal and an external housing.
❑Liquid enters the suction port between the rotor (large exterior gear)
and idler (small interior gear) teeth.
❑Liquid travels through the pump between the teeth and crescent.
❑Crescent divides the liquid and acts as a seal between the suction
and discharge ports.
❑When the teeth mesh on the side opposite to the crescent seal, the
fluid is forced out through the discharge port of the pump.

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Hydraulic PUmps
Internal Gear Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Gerotor Pump
❑It consists of two rotors viz. inner and outer rotor. The inner rotor
has N teeth, and the outer rotor has N+1 teeth.

❑The inner rotor is located off-center and both rotors rotate. The
geometry of the two rotors partitions the volume between them into
N different dynamically-changing volumes.

❑During the rotation, volume of each partition changes continuously.

Therefore, any given volume first increases, and then decreases. An
increase in volume creates vacuum.

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Gerotor Pump
❑This vacuum creates suction, and thus, this part of the cycle sucks
the fluid. As the volume decreases, compression occurs. During this
compression period, fluids can be pumped, or compressed.

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Hydraulic PUmps
Gerotor Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Vane Pump
❑The vane pump consists of a housing containing vanes (blades), a
hollow steel rotor with slots for the vanes, and a coupling to turn the
rotor.

❑The rotor is positioned off center within the sleeve. The vanes, which
are mounted in the slots in the rotor and divide the bore of the
sleeve into four sections.

❑As the rotor turns, each section, in turn, passes one point where its
volume is at a minimum, and another point where its volume is at a
maximum.

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Vane Pump
❑Since a partial vacuum is produced by the increase in volume of the
section, fluid is drawn into the section through the pump inlet port
and the slot in the sleeve.

❑As the rotor turns through the second half of the revolution, and the
volume of the given section is decreasing, fluid is displaced out of the
section, through the slot in the sleeve, through the outlet port, and
out of the pump.

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Hydraulic PUmps
Vane Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
❑Piston pumps are meant for the high-pressure applications. These
pumps convert the rotary motion of the input shaft to the
reciprocating motion of the piston.

❑They work on the principle that a reciprocating piston draws fluid

inside the cylinder when the piston retracts in a cylinder bore and
discharge the fluid when it extends.

❑These pumps have a number of pistons (usually an odd number) in a

circular array within a housing which is commonly referred to as a
cylinder block, rotor or barrel.

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Bent-Axis Piston Pump
❑The reciprocating action of the pistons is obtained by bending the
axis of the cylinder block. The cylinder block rotates at an angle
which is inclined to the drive shaft.
❑The cylinder block is set at an offset angle with the drive shaft. The
cylinder block contains a number of pistons along its periphery.
These piston rods are connected with the drive shaft flange by ball-
and-socket joints.
❑These pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance
between the drive shaft flange and the cylinder block changes. A
universal link connects the block to the drive shaft, to provide
alignment and a positive drive.

85
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Bent-Axis Piston Pump

86
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Bent-Axis Piston Pump

87
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump

❑A swash plate is a device that translates the rotary motion of a shaft

into the reciprocating motion. It consists of a disk attached to a shaft.

❑The apparent linear motion can be converted into an actual

reciprocating motion by means of a follower that does not turn with
the swash plate.

88
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump

89
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump

90
 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Radial Piston Pump

❑The piston pump has pistons aligned radially in a cylindrical block.

❑It consists of a pintle, a cylinder barrel with pistons and a rotor

containing a reaction ring. The pintle directs the fluid in and out of
the cylinder.

❑Pistons are placed in radial bores around the rotor. The piston shoes
ride on an eccentric ring which causes them to reciprocate as they
rotate.

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Piston Pump
Radial Piston Pump

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 Hydraulic PUmps
Centrifugal Pump
❑Centrifugal pump uses rotational kinetic energy to deliver the fluid.
The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric
motor.

❑The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis,
accelerates in the propeller and flung out to the periphery by
centrifugal force.

❑These pumps are not suitable for high pressure applications and are
generally used for low-pressure and high-volume flow applications.
The maximum pressure capacity is limited to 20-30 bars.

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Hydraulic PUmps
Centrifugal Pump

94
 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

• The resistance to flow is essentially a measure of the viscosity of a

fluid. The greater the viscosity of a fluid, the less readily it flows
and the more is the energy required to move it.

• This energy is lost because it is dissipated as heat.

• Various types of fittings, such as bends, couplings, tees, elbows,

filters, strainers, etc., are used in hydraulic systems. The nature of
path through the valves and fittings determines the amount of
energy losses.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• Laminar flow is a streamline or viscous flow.

• Turbulent flow is characterized by a fluid flowing in random way.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Reynolds Number

• In the flow of a fluid through a completely filled passage, gravity

does not affect the flow pattern and hence significant forces are
inertial force and fluid friction due to viscosity

• Considering the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, the

parameter obtained is called the Reynolds number.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Reynolds Number

• Reynolds came to a significant conclusion that the nature of the

flow depends on the dimensionless parameter, that is,

• v is the fluid velocity

• D is the inside diameter of the pipe
• ρ is the fluid density
• μ is the absolute viscosity of the fluid
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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

• If Re is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

• If Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.

• Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 covers a critical zone

between laminar and turbulent flow.

99
 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Darcy–Weisbach Equation

• If a fluid flows through a length of pipe and pressure is measured

at two stations along the pipe, one finds that the pressure
decreases in the direction of flow.

• This pressure decrease is mainly due to the friction of the fluid

against the pipe wall.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Darcy–Weisbach Equation
• Head losses in a long pipe in which the velocity distribution has
become fully established or uniform along its length can be found
by Darcy’s equation as

• f is the Darcy friction factor

• L is the length of pipe (m)
• D is the inside diameter of the pipe (m)
• v is the average velocity (m/s)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (m/s2).
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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow

• Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes

experiencing laminar flow by noting that for laminar flow, the
friction factor equals the constant 64 divided by the Reynolds
number.

• Substituting this into Darcy’s equation gives the Hagen–Poiseuille

equation.

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 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow

• Darcy’s equation can be used to find head losses in pipes

experiencing turbulent flow. However, the friction factor in
turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe.
• The relative roughness of pipe is defined as the ratio of inside
surface roughness (ε) to the diameter (D).

103
 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Valves and Fittings

• For many fluid power applications, the majority of the energy
losses occur in valves and fittings in which there is a change in the
cross-section of flow path and a change in the direction of the
flow.

• Tests have shown that head losses in valves and fittings are
proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid.

104
 Energy Losses in Hydraulic System

Frictional Losses in Valves and Fittings

• Where K is called the loss coefficient of valve or fittings.

105
 PUMP PERFORMANCE

❑The performance of a pump is a function of the precision of its

manufacture.

❑An ideal pump is one having zero clearance between all mating
parts. Because this is not possible, working clearances should be
as small as possible while maintaining proper oil films for
lubrication between rubbing parts

106
 PUMP PERFORMANCE

The performance of a pump is determined by the following

efficiencies:

1. Volumetric efficiency (ηV ): It is the ratio of actual flow rate of the

pump to the theoretical flow rate of the pump.

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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

1. Volumetric efficiency (ηV )

❑Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of leakage that takes

place within the pump.
❑This is due to manufacture tolerances and flexing of the pump
casing under designed pressure operating conditions.

• For gear pumps, ηV = 80%–90%.

• For vane pumps, ηV = 92%.
• For piston pumps, ηV = 90%–98%.
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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

2. Mechanical efficiency (ηm): It is the ratio of the pump output

power assuming no leakage to actual power delivered to the
pump.

❑Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of energy losses that

occur for reasons other than leakage.

❑This includes friction in bearings and between mating parts. This

includes the energy losses due to fluid turbulence. Mechanical
efficiencies are about 90%–95%.
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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

3. Overall efficiency (ηo): It is defined as the ratio of actual power

delivered by the pump to actual power delivered to the pump.

110
 PERFORMANCE CURVES

❑Pump performance characteristics are first analyzed

independently of the rest of hydraulic system and then as a part
of the system. Both sets of data are valuable to the designer

❑Analyzing the pump by itself gives an indication of its capabilities

and performance based on the speed of rotation, internal
geometry, cost factors, etc., whereas analyzing pump performance
in system essentially determines pump system compatibility.

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 PERFORMANCE CURVES

❑In the first case, the system designer may observe performance
curves to see if a specific pump has the pressure and volume flow
rate to operate a given set of actuators.

❑In a second instance, the system designer may be computing the

noise, vibration, cavitations and flow characteristics of a specific
pump before or after installation to determine if the pump and
existing system are compatible.

112
 PERFORMANCE CURVES

Relationship between input power and pump output flow of a

variable displacement piston pump as a function of pump speed.

113
 PERFORMANCE CURVES

Overall and volumetric efficiencies as a function of speed.

114
 PERFORMANCE CURVES

Performance curves of radial piston pump. Discharge flow of these

pumps is nearly constant over a broad pressure range.

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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

Pump Noise
❑Any increase in noise indicates increased wear and eventually
pump failure.

❑Noise is not just the sound coming directly from the pump, but
also from the vibration and fluid pulsation produced by the pump.

❑Pump-induced vibration can cause audible noise greater than that

coming from the pump. Fixed displacement pumps are less noisy
than variable displacement pumps because of their rigid
construction.
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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

Pump Noise

Pump Noise Characteristics 117

 PUMP PERFORMANCE

Pump Cavitation

❑During the working of a positive displacement pump, vacuum is

created at the inlet of the pump. This allows atmospheric pressure
to push the fluid in. In some situations, the vacuum may become
excessive, and a phenomenon known as cavitation occurs.

❑When the pressure of the liquid reaches a low enough level, it

vaporizes or boils. Cavitation is the formation of oil vapor bubbles
due to a very low pressure (high vacuum) on the inside of the
pump.

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 PUMP PERFORMANCE

Cavitation is caused by the following factors:

• Undersized plumbing.
• Clogged lines or suction filters.
• High fluid viscosity.
• Too much elevation head between the reservoir and the pump
inlet.

119