Introduction to Computer Application, Pritom Paul, NEUB 1

1. Lecture 1: Introduction To Computer And Computer Hardware

1.1. Overview Of Computer
Definition: A computer is an electronic machine that takes input from the user, processes the given input and
generates output in the form of useful information. The word ‘Computer’ comes from ‘Compute’, meaning
calculating or computing.
A computer accepts input in different forms such as data, programs and user reply. Data refer to the raw details
that need to be processed to generate some useful information. Programs refer to the set of instructions that
can be executed by the computer in a sequential or non-sequential manner. The main task of a computer
system is to process the given input of any type in an efficient manner. Therefore, the computer is also known
by various other names such as data processing unit, data processor
and data processing system.
1.2. Characteristics Of Computer
The characteristics and capabilities of a modern digital computer include, among others:
1. Ability to be programmed: One of the defining characteristics of a computer is its programmability.
Computers can be instructed to perform specific tasks by writing code in various programming
languages.
2. Automation: Computers are capable of executing instructions without constant human intervention
once they are programmed. For instance, automated systems like payroll processing or industrial robots
can perform repetitive tasks seamlessly over long periods.
3. Speed: A computer is a fast electronic device that can solve large and complex problems in few
seconds. The speed of a computer generally depends upon its hardware configuration.
4. Storage capacity: A computer can store huge amount of data in its different storage components in
many different formats. The storage area of a computer system is generally divided into two categories:
main memory and secondary storage.
5. Accuracy: A computer carries out calculations with great accuracy. The accuracy achieved by a
computer depends upon its hardware configuration and the instructions.
6. Multitasking: Computers can handle multiple tasks at the same time. For instance, you can edit a
document, browse the web, and listen to music simultaneously.
7. Reliability: A computer produces results without any error. Most of the errors generated in the
computer are human errors that are created by the user itself. Therefore, they are very trustworthy
machines.
8. Versatility: Computers are versatile machines. They can perform many different tasks and can be used
for many different purposes.
9. Diligence: Computers can perform repetitive calculations any number of times with the same accuracy.
10. Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence): With advancements in AI, computers can now simulate aspects
of human intelligence, such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

1.3. Limitations Of Computer

While computers have revolutionized the way we work and solve problems, they are not without limitations.
Here are some of the limitations of computer:
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1. Dependence on Human Input: Computers need clear, precise instructions to function effectively. Any
ambiguity or error in the input data or program logic can result in incorrect outputs or system failure,
demonstrating their dependency on human guidance.
2. Incapable of Creativity: Unlike humans, computers cannot create or innovate on their own. They can
only replicate, modify, or execute predefined instructions but lack the ability to produce original ideas
or works of art without external input.
3. Emotionless Operations: Computers operate without emotions, intuition, or empathy. They cannot
respond to situations requiring emotional intelligence or subjective judgment, which limits their
application in fields requiring human interaction or care.
4. No Self-Learning (Without Programming): While advancements in Artificial Intelligence enable
some learning capabilities, most computers cannot learn or adapt independently. They can only
improve performance based on specific algorithms designed for learning (like machine learning
models).
5. Hardware and Software Dependency: Computers are reliant on their hardware and software
components to function. A malfunction in hardware or a bug in the software can disrupt operations or
cause the system to fail entirely.

1.4. Applications Of Computer

In this era, Computers are used in almost every sphere of life such as education, communication and banking.
The users from different locations can easily and quickly communicate with each other with the help of
computers. The use of computers has reduced the paper work to a large extent. Thus, computers have become
a basic need to perform various tasks in our day-to-day life. The various application areas of computers are as
follows:
1. Education: Computers are used in schools and colleges to teach students in a better and easy way. The
students can get more information about a specific topic or subject using the Internet. Computers help
in easy learning by creating presentations on a specific topic. Now, students can fill their application
forms and give their exams online that facilitates distance education.
2. Business: Computers are used in different types of businesses to store a large amount of information in
the form of a database. Using computers, business meetings can be held between people sitting at
remote locations through web conferencing. Buyers and sellers can conduct business online through
the use of computers and Internet.
3. Communication: Computers that are connected with each other through Internet can be used to
transfer data to and from other computers. In order to establish communication between two users, e-
mail is one of the most common mediums that is used. Through e-mail users can send/receive text
messages, graphic messages and file attachments.
4. Science: Computers are used by various scientists for the purpose of research and development. They
generally make use of computer for research and analysis of new theories. With the help of computers,
scientists are moving towards the possibility of predicting natural disasters such as earthquake and
tsunami.
5. Engineering: Computers are used by engineers for the creation of complex drawings and designs
while working in different fields like automobiles and construction.
6. Entertainment: Computers are used in the entertainment industry for creating graphics and
animations. There are various free as well as proprietary graphics software available for creating
graphics and animations.
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7. Banking: Now days, computers are being increasingly used for online banking. Through online
banking, the users or customers can transfer and receive money by using computers and Internet. Some
banks also provide the facility of online bill payment through their websites.
8. Healthcare: Computers are used by doctors to diagnose various kinds of diseases and ailments.
Several analog and digital devices are connected with computers enabling the doctors to monitor the
condition of a patient and view the internal organs of the body. Further, bio-informatics has evolved as
an altogether new science that deals with the application of information technology in the field of
molecular biology.

1.5. History Of Computers

1.5.1. Analog Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as counting
tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices were developed. Some of
the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are described below.
Abacus: The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first computer. It
is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by the abacus
operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like
China, Russia and Japan.

Figure 1: Abacus
Napier's Bones: It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-
1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to
multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the
decimal point.
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Slide Rule: Created by Edmund Gunter in 1620, it performed multiplication, division, and complex functions
like logarithms and trigonometry.

Figure 2: Slide Ruller

Pascaline: Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642
and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical
and automatic calculator.

Figure 3: Pascaline
Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition and
subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it
rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An
image of this tool is shown below.
Analytical Engine: This calculating machine was developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing
information as a permanent memory.

Figure 4: Analytical
Engine
1.5.2. Digital Computers
Digital computers represent a groundbreaking shift in technology, utilizing binary logic and electronic
components to perform calculations with unmatched speed and accuracy, laying the foundation for modern
computing, evolving from early mechanical concepts to powerful programmable devices.
Mark I: The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned to
develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was
built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
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1.6. Generations Of Computers

First Generation Computers Figure 5: Mark I
In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the first generation of computers. These
machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic
components of CPU and memory. Also, they were mainly dependent on the batch operating systems and punch
cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1,
EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation Computers
The period from 1957 to 1963 marked the second generation of computers, characterized by the use of
transistors, which were cheaper, compact, and consumed less power than vacuum tubes. These computers were
faster, utilized magnetic cores for primary memory, and magnetic disks and tapes for secondary storage.
COBOL and FORTRAN emerged as programming languages, while batch processing and multiprogramming
operating systems were introduced. For example IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.
Third Generation Computers
The third generation of computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors, enhancing power,
reliability, efficiency, and reducing cost and size. These computers featured remote processing, time-sharing,
and multiprogramming operating systems, with high-level programming languages like FORTRAN-II to IV,
COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1.
Fourth Generation Computers
The fourth generation of computers (1971–1980) utilized VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated) circuits, with
chips containing millions of transistors, making them compact, powerful, fast, and affordable. These
computers used real-time, time-sharing, and distributed operating systems, with C and C++ as programming
languages.
Fifth Generation Computers
Fifth-generation computers (1980–present) use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, with
microprocessor chips containing over ten million components. They feature parallel processing hardware, AI
software, and programming languages like C, C++, Java, and .Net. For example Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook,
UltraBook, etc.

1.7. Classification Of Computers

Computers today are designed to process data and provide output, though their methods may vary. Computers
can be classified according to the following three criteria:
• Based on operating principles
• Based on applications
• Based on size and capability
1.7.1. Based On Operating Principles
On the basis of operations performed and methods used to store and process data and information, computers
can be classified into the following categories:
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1. Analog computers
The analog computers represent data in the form of continuous electrical signals having a specific
magnitude. These computers are very fast in their operation and allow several other operations to be
carried out at the same time. However, the results produced by these computers are not very accurate.
Therefore, the analog computers are widely used in applications in which the accuracy of results is not
a major concern. They are powerful tools to solve differential equations. Speedometer and Mercury
Thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
2. Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the
raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs
stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including
smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
3. Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers combine the features of both analog and digital computers, making them fast,
efficient, and reliable. They process data using electrical signals and store it digitally, allowing them to
handle both continuous and discrete data. These computers are commonly used in medical applications,
such as ECG and ICU monitoring systems, as well as in scientific research, industrial automation, and
flight simulation. Other examples include weather forecasting systems, missile guidance systems, and
petroleum reservoir modeling. Hybrid computers are also cost-effective for complex simulations and
are generally less expensive than digital computers.
1.7.2. Based On Applications
On the basis of different applications or purposes, computers can be classified into the following categories:
1. Servers
Dedicated computers designed to provide services to clients, named based on their function, such as
security servers and database servers. Examples include web servers (Apache, Nginx) and email
servers (Microsoft Exchange).
2. Workstations
High-performance computers designed for single-user tasks, running multi-user operating systems,
used for personal and commercial work. Examples include Dell Precision and HP Z series.
3. Information Appliances
Portable devices designed for specific tasks like calculations, multimedia playback, and internet
browsing, with limited memory and flexibility. Examples include smartphones, tablets, and e-book
readers.
4. Embedded Computers
Computing devices integrated into machines for specific functions, operating from non-volatile
memory without needing reboots. Examples include ATMs, medical equipment, and automotive
control systems.
1.7.3. Based On Size And Capabilities
On the basis of size and capability, computers can be classified into the following categories:
1. Supercomputers
The most powerful computers, measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second) instead of
MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second), used for high-performance tasks like quantum mechanics,
weather forecasting, and cryptanalysis. They run on Linux-based systems and are developed globally
for advanced research. Examples: PARAM, Jaguar, Roadrunner.
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2. Mainframe Computers
Known as "big iron," these are used by large organizations for bulk data processing, including
statistics, census, and transaction processing. They have evolved significantly in size, capacity, and
efficiency since the 1960s. Examples: IBM z Series, System z9, System z10.
3. Minicomputers
Introduced in the 1960s, they were cheaper than mainframes and designed for control, instrumentation,
and communication. They became popular for personal use with advancements in technology.
Examples: Personal laptops, PCs.
4. Microcomputers
Small and affordable computers with a microprocessor, memory, and basic I/O, forming the foundation
for modern personal devices. Earlier computers were larger and harder to maintain. Examples: Tablets,
Smartwatches.

2. Functional Units of Computers

A Computer System is a combination of hardware and software that works together to perform tasks and
process data. It follows the basic cycle of Input → Process → Output.

2.1. Hardware
1) Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for
processing.
2) Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing.
3) Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of
calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the
storage unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).
4) Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided, are carried
out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to etc.
5) Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step-by-step processing of all operations inside the computer.

Figure 6: Basic Organization of Computer

6) Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing.
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2.2. Software
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer what to
do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s
commands and tell the computer what to do.
There are a few types of software, that can be broadly categorized into two categories: System software and
Application software.
1) Systems software: Systems software are those programs that control a computer's internal functioning
through an operating system. The system software are:
i) Operating System: The main software loaded at startup that manages hardware resources and
provides a user interface; examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux.
ii) Language Processor: Converts high-level programming code (source code) into machine-readable
instructions (object code) for execution. Such as, C/C++, Python, Java.
iii) Device Driver: Software that enables the operating system to communicate with and control hardware
devices, such as, printer, mouse, modem, etc., ensuring proper functionality.
2) Application Software: Programs designed to help users perform specific tasks, such as document editing,
web browsing, or gaming, by running on top of system software.

2.3. Input/Output Devices

I/O (Input/Output) Devices are hardware components that enable communication between a computer and the
outside world. They allow users or systems to interact with a computer by either providing data (input) or
receiving processed results (output).
1) Input Devices:
These are hardware components that send data or commands to a computer for processing. Some the
output devices are,
i) Keyboard: Enters text and commands.
ii) Mouse/Touchpad: Controls cursor movement and interacts with on-screen elements.
iii) Microphone: Captures audio input.
iv) Scanner: Converts physical documents/images into digital files.
v) Webcam: Records video or takes photos.
vi) Joystick/Game Controller: Provides input for gaming or simulations.
vii) Touchscreen: Allows direct interaction via touch (can also serve as an output device).
2) Output Devices:
Devices that are used to display or transmit data from the computer. Some the output devices are,
i) Monitor/Display: Shows visual output (text, images, videos).
ii) Printer/3D Printer: Produces physical copies of digital content.
iii) Speakers/Headphones: Output audio.
iv) Projector: Displays content on a large screen.
v) Braille Reader: Converts digital text into tactile braille for visually impaired users.
3) Hybrid Devices:
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Some devices, like touchscreens (touch input + visual output), modems, or network cards, handle both input
and output.

2.4. Memory Unit

The memory of a computer is any physical device that is capable of storing information whether it is large or
small and stores it temporarily or permanently.
Memory can be either volatile or non-volatile. Volatile memory is a type of memory that loses its contents
when the computer or hardware device is switched off. RAM is an example of a volatile memory i.e. if your
computer gets rebooted while working on a program, you lose all the unsaved data. Non-volatile memory is a
memory that keeps its contents saved even in the case of power loss. EPROM((Erasable Programmable ROM)
is an example of non-volatile memory. Most modern memory is semiconductor-based, built using integrated
circuits (ICs) with silicon transistors.
2.4.1. How Computer Memory Works?
When you open a program (e.g., a document or game), it is moved from secondary memory (like an SSD or
HDD) to primary memory (RAM). Primary memory is much faster, allowing the CPU to access and process
data quickly. This is why programs run smoothly once loaded into RAM.
1) Primary Memory (RAM): Acts as a temporary workspace. Data here is volatile, meaning it’s erased
when the computer is turned off.
2) Secondary Memory (SSD/HDD): Stores data permanently. When you save a file, it moves from RAM
back to secondary memory for long-term storage.
2.4.2. Primary Memory
Primary memory, also called main memory, is used to store data and instructions while the computer is
running. It is made using semiconductor technology, so it is often called semiconductor memory, it is fast but
limited in size. Primary memory is divided into two types:
1) RAM (Random Access Memory)
i) Volatile: Loses data when power is off.
ii) Function: Temporarily holds data/programs being used by the CPU.
iii) Types:
• SRAM (Static RAM):
⎯ Uses transistors and flip-flops (stores 1 bit per flip-flop).
⎯ Faster, no need for constant refreshing.
⎯ Used in CPU cache (e.g., L1, L2 cache).
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM):
⎯ Uses capacitors (stores data as electrical charge).
⎯ Needs regular charge refreshing (slower than SRAM).
⎯ Common in computer RAM sticks (e.g., DDR4, DDR5).
2) ROM (Read-Only Memory)
i) Non-volatile: Retains data even without power.
ii) Function: Stores permanent instructions (e.g., firmware to boot the computer).
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iii) Types:
• MROM (Masked ROM):
⎯ Pre-programmed during manufacturing. Cannot be modified.
• PROM (Programmable ROM):
⎯ Blank when bought; user programs it once (permanent).
• EPROM (Erasable PROM):
⎯ Erased using ultraviolet (UV) light; reusable after reprogramming.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM):
⎯ Erased and reprogrammed electrically (e.g., modern BIOS).
⎯ Allows selective updates (no UV light needed).
2.4.3. Secondary Memory
Secondary memory (also called auxiliary memory, storage, or backup memory) is a non-volatile type of
memory used to store large volumes of data permanently. Unlike primary memory (RAM/ROM), the CPU
cannot access secondary memory directly. Data must first be transferred to primary memory (RAM) for
processing.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory:
• Non-volatile: Retains data even when the computer is turned off.
• High Capacity: Stores terabytes (TB) or petabytes (PB) of data.
• Slower Speed: Slower than primary memory but cheaper and reusable.
• Indirect Access: CPU cannot access data directly; it must be loaded into RAM first.
• Portability: Some types (e.g., USB drives, DVDs) are removable and portable.
Types of secondary memory:
1) Magnetic Storage
Magnetic storage uses magnetized surfaces to store data. These are widely used for large data storage.
i) Magnetic Tapes:
• Design: Long plastic strips coated with magnetic material.
• How it Works: Data stored as magnetic patches on parallel tracks.
• Use: Archival backups (e.g., old corporate data storage).
• Pros: Cheap, high capacity.
• Cons: Slow (sequential access only), outdated for most modern uses.
ii) Magnetic Disks:
• Design: Circular metal/plastic platters coated with magnetic material.
• Examples:
⎯ Hard Disk Drives (HDDs):
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(a) Fixed inside computers.

(b) Stores data in tracks and sectors.
(c) High capacity (up to 20+ TB).
(d) Slower than SSDs but cheaper.
⎯ Floppy Disks:
(a) Obsolete, low-capacity (1.44 MB)
2) Optical Storage
Optical storage uses laser technology to read and write data on discs.
i) Design: Uses lasers to read/write data on reflective surfaces.
ii) Types:
• CD (Compact Disc):
⎯ CD-ROM: Read-only (e.g., software installation discs).
⎯ Capacity: ~700 MB.
• DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disc):
⎯ DVD-R: Writable once (4.7–17 GB).
⎯ DVD-RW: Re-writable.
⎯ Used for movies, large software.
• Blu-ray:
⎯ High-definition storage (25–128 GB).
⎯ Uses blue-violet lasers for higher density.
iii) How It Works:
• Data is burned as microscopic "pits" on the disc surface.
• A laser reads reflections from the pits to retrieve data.
3) Solid-State Storage
Flash memory uses electronic circuits to store data. It is faster and more durable than magnetic and optical
storage.
i) SSD (Solid-State Drive):
• Design: Uses flash memory (no moving parts).
• Pros: Faster than HDDs, durable, low power consumption.
• Cons: More expensive per GB.
• Use: Modern laptops, high-performance PCs.
ii) USB Flash Drives:
• Portable, plug-and-play storage.
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• Capacities range from 8 GB to 2 TB.

iii) Memory Cards (e.g., SD, microSD):
• Used in cameras, smartphones, and tablets.
iv) NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express) AKA Semiconductor Memory
• A high-speed flash storage device, faster than SSDs.
• Used in gaming, high-performance computing, and professional applications.
2.4.4. Units of Memory
1) Bit
The first memory location in a computer is bit. The smallest measurement unit for data held in primary
memory and storage devices is a bit. Out of the binary values 0 and 1, a bit can only have one.
a) The smallest measurement unit for data in primary memory and storage devices.
b) Represents binary values 0 and 1.
2) Nibble
It means the group of 4 bits.
3) Bytes
The fundamental unit used to measure data is the byte. It has 8 bits in it. A byte can therefore represent 2 *
8 or 256 values. They determine the size of files, documents, photos, and other kinds of data.
a) The fundamental unit for measuring data, consisting of 8 bits.
b) Represents 256 values and determines file, document, photo, and data sizes.
4) Kilobyte
1024 bytes is equal to one kilobyte. It is widely used to denote small file sizes and data storage capacities.
One kilobyte can hold a small image or around 1024 characters of text. It frequently shows up in text
documents, spreadsheets, and small image files.
a) Equal to 1024 bytes.
b) Denotes small file sizes and storage capacities.
c) Can hold small images or around 1024 characters of text.
5) Megabyte
a) Comprising 1024 kilobytes.
b) Contains more information compared to a kilobyte.
c) Holds longer texts, high-resolution images, and short audio clips.
d) Measures file sizes of music, short films, software packages, and documents.
6) Gigabyte
a) Equal to 1024 megabytes.
b) Offers substantial data storage space.
c) Suitable for larger files, such as full photo albums, high-definition movies, and software programs.
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7) Larger Units (Less Common)

a) Exabyte (EB): 1 quintillion bytes (10¹⁸).
i) Example: Global internet traffic per month.
b) Zettabyte (ZB): 1 sextillion bytes (10²¹).
i) Example: Total data generated worldwide annually.
c) Yottabyte (YB): 1 septillion bytes (10²⁴).
i) Theoretical, used in futuristic contexts.
8)
2.4.5. Decimal vs. Binary Prefixes
1) Decimal (SI Units):
i) Used by storage manufacturers (1 kilobyte = 1,000 bytes).
ii) Units: KB, MB, GB, TB, PB, EB, ZB, YB.
2) Binary (IEC Units):
i) Used in computing (1 kibibyte = 1,024 bytes).
ii) Units: KiB, MiB, GiB, TiB, PiB, EiB, ZiB, YiB.