Module 4

Programme Recording
Programme recording is a fundamental element in radio, television, podcasting, and multimedia
journalism. High-quality programme recording demands appropriate selection and handling of
microphones, which play a vital role in determining sound clarity, tone, and overall production value.
Understanding the types of microphones, their principles of operation, features, and applications is
crucial for students and professionals in the media industry.

Microphones

Classification of Microphones

Microphones can be classified in the following ways:

A) Based on How They Work (Operation Principle): Operational Microphones

1. Dynamic Microphones – work using magnets and coils (electromagnetic induction)
2. Condenser Microphones – use electric charge (capacitance)
3. Ribbon Microphones – use a thin metal ribbon in a magnetic field

B) Based on Sound Pickup Direction (Polar Pattern): Directional Microphones

1. Omnidirectional – picks up sound from all directions
2. Cardioid – mainly picks up sound from the front
3. Supercardioid / Hypercardioid – very focused front pickup with little from the back

C) Based on Their Use and Shape (Design & Application): Design Microphones
1. Lavalier (Lapel) Microphones – small, clip-on mics for TV and interviews
2. Shotgun Microphones – long and directional, used in films
3. USB Microphones – connect directly to computers for easy use
4. Boundary Microphones – placed on flat surfaces, good for meetings and group talks

1. Dynamic Microphones
Working Principle:
Dynamic microphones operate using electromagnetic induction. When sound waves hit the
diaphragm, it moves a coil of wire attached to it within the magnetic field of a magnet, generating an
electrical signal.
Key Features:
• Very durable and can withstand rough handling
• Does not require external power supply or phantom power
• Less sensitive to quiet, subtle sounds; ideal for loud sound sources
• Performs well in high-pressure sound environments
Applications:
• On-location news reporting
• Outdoor interviews
• Live musical performances
• Sports commentary
Examples:
• Shure SM58 (preferred for vocal applications)
• Electro-Voice RE20 (commonly used in broadcast radio)

2. Condenser Microphones
Working Principle:
Condenser microphones function based on capacitance. A thin diaphragm acts as one plate, and
vibrations due to sound waves cause changes in capacitance, which are converted into an electrical
signal. Capacitance refers to the ability of a system to store
electric charge.
Key Features:
• Extremely sensitive and accurate
• Captures a wide range of frequencies and nuances
• Requires an external power supply
• Not ideal for loud environments without proper
attenuation
Applications:
• Studio voice recording for news or features
• Voiceovers for advertisements and documentaries
• Audiobooks and podcasting
Examples:
• Audio-Technica AT2020
• Rode NT1-A

3. Ribbon Microphones
Working Principle:
Ribbon microphones use a thin metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. As sound waves move the
ribbon, it creates a voltage by electromagnetic induction.
Key Features:
• Produces warm, smooth, and natural audio reproduction
• Very sensitive; best used in controlled environments
• Fragile and vulnerable to damage from wind.
Applications:
• Music studio recordings (vocals, strings, brass)
• Recreating vintage radio sounds
Examples:
• Royer R-121
• AEA R84

Directional Microphones
Microphone Polar Patterns
Microphones differ based on how they pick up sound. These pickup patterns affect how the mic
responds to sound from different directions.
 1. Omnidirectional:

• Captures sound equally from all directions

• Best for ambient recording, roundtable interviews

2. Cardioid:

• Picks up mostly from the front, less from the sides, and minimal from the back side
• Ideal for studio recording, narration, and focused voice capture

3.Supercardioid/Hypercardioid:
• More focused than cardioid with slight rear pickup
• Better isolation; useful in noisy environments

4.Bidirectional:

• Captures sound from front and back, not from sides

• Used in duet recordings, face-to-face interviews
Design Microphones
1. Lavalier (Lapel) Microphones
Design & Working:
Lavalier microphones are small, clip-on mics often used with wireless transmitters. Their compact
size allows them to be attached to the speaker’s clothing.
Key Features:
• Omnidirectional or cardioid polar patterns
• Discreet and lightweight
• Suitable for hands-free operation
Applications:
• TV news presentations
• Interviews and panel discussions
• Classroom lectures and educational content
Examples:
• Boya BY-M1
• Sennheiser ME 2-II

2. Shotgun Microphones

Design & Working

Shotgun microphones have a long barrel and use an interference tube to focus on sounds coming from
the front while rejecting off-axis sounds.
Key Features:
 • Highly directional (supercardioid or hypercardioid)
• Excellent background noise rejection
• Requires battery or phantom power
Applications:
• Documentary filmmaking
• Outdoor interviews and reporting
• Sound capture in noisy or public environments
Examples:
• Rode NTG2
• Sennheiser MKE 600

3. USB Microphones
Working Principle:
USB microphones combine the microphone capsule with an onboard analog-to-digital converter,
allowing direct connection to computers via USB without an external audio interface.

Key Features:
• Easy plug-and-play functionality
• Suitable for beginners and remote content creators
• Generally, condenser-based for better audio quality
Applications:
• Podcasting
• Voice recording for online classes or YouTube
• Remote interviews
Examples:
• Blue Yeti
• Samson Meteor
4. Boundary Microphones

Design & Working:

Boundary microphones are placed on a flat surface to capture sound waves directly from above, using
the boundary effect to reduce phase interference.
Key Features:
• Wide pickup area
• Reduces echo and phase cancellation
• Often used in conference environments
Applications:
• Group discussions
• Board meetings
• Multi-speaker interviews
Examples:
• Shure MX391
 Speakers
Definition: Speakers are electroacoustic devices that convert electrical audio signals into audible
sound. In media production, they are used to monitor, review, and present sound content.
Speakers consist of a diaphragm (usually a cone), a voice coil, and a magnet. When an audio
signal passes through the coil, it interacts with the magnetic field, causing the diaphragm to
vibrate and create sound waves.
Types of Speakers:
1. Studio Monitors:
o Used in professional studios
o Provide a flat frequency response for accurate sound
o Help detect flaws in recordings and mixes
2. PA (Public Address) Speakers:
o Designed for high-volume, live environments
o Used in public events, conferences, or rallies
3. Computer/Desktop Speakers:
o Suitable for basic editing and playback
o Often used in educational and beginner setups
Key Features to Consider:
• Frequency Response: The range of sound a speaker can reproduce
• Wattage: Power output, measured in watts (W)
• Connectivity: Wired (XLR, 3.5mm jack) or wireless (Bluetooth, USB)
• Size & Portability: Based on studio space or event setup
Applications:
• Audio playback during editing
• Programme monitoring
• Live broadcast and event support

Headphones
Definition: Headphones are wearable audio devices that allow an individual to listen to sound
privately without disturbing others. They are essential tools in programme production, editing,
field reporting, and broadcasting.
Elaborate Explanation: Headphones work by receiving audio signals and converting them into
sound using small drivers inside the ear cups or ear tips. They offer detailed audio feedback and
isolation, making them vital for precise monitoring.
Types of Headphones:
1. Over-Ear (Circumaural):
o Fully cover the ears
o Best sound quality and noise isolation
o Commonly used in studio settings
2. On-Ear (Supra-aural):
o Rest on the outer ear
o Lightweight and portable
o Moderate isolation; good for casual monitoring
3. In-Ear Monitors (IEMs):
o Fit directly into the ear canal
o Provide excellent isolation in live environments
o Preferred in field recordings and TV productions
Key Features to Consider:
• Impedance (measured in ohms): Higher impedance suits studio equipment; lower suits
portable devices
• Frequency Response: Clarity across low, mid, and high tones
• Noise Cancellation: Active (ANC) or passive
• Comfort: Especially important during long editing sessions
Applications:
• Monitoring live recordings
• Editing and mixing audio
• Field recording and interviews

Recording Software and Acoustic Conditions

A) Recording Software (Digital Audio Workstations - DAWs):

Software used to record, edit, mix, and produce audio content.
Commonly Used DAWs:
• Audacity (free and open-source, ideal for beginners)
• Adobe Audition (professional-grade, widely used in journalism and film)
• Pro Tools (used in high-end studios)
• GarageBand (Mac users)
Functions of DAWs:
• Multi-track recording
• Audio editing and trimming
• Adding sound effects
• Mixing and exporting in various formats

B) Acoustic Conditions (Recording Environment):

The quality of a recorded sound is heavily influenced by the environment in which it is captured.
Ideal Acoustic Conditions:
• Soundproofing to block external noise
• Acoustic treatment (foam panels, bass traps) to reduce echo and reverb
• Use of isolation booths or pop filters
Factors to Control:
• Room shape and surface material
• Ambient noise level
• Microphone placement

Special Effects in Audio Production

Definition: Special effects (SFX) in audio refer to artificial or enhanced sounds added to a
recording to create a desired mood, simulate reality, or emphasise action.
Types of Special Effects:
1. Ambient Sounds – Background noise like rain, wind, city traffic
2. Foley Effects – Manually created sounds that mimic real-life noises (e.g., footsteps, door
creaks)
3. Electronic Effects – Echo, reverb, distortion, delay, etc.
4. Musical Sound Beds – Low-volume music or tones used to heighten emotion or tension

Purpose:
• Enhance storytelling
• Improve realism
• Maintain audience engagement
Application in Programmes:
• Radio dramas
• Documentaries
• Podcasts and features
 Mixing and Dubbing
A) Mixing: The process of adjusting and combining multiple audio tracks (voice, music, effects)
into a final product.
Steps in Audio Mixing:
1. Volume balancing
2. Equalization (EQ)
3. Panning (left-right balance)
4. Compression
5. Adding effects (reverb, delay)
B) Dubbing: Replacing or adding voice or sound to a media file, often used to:
• Translate languages (voice-over)
• Improve or replace original dialogue
• Add narration or commentary
Applications:
• Film and television post-production
• Animation and cartoon voice replacement
• News features and documentary narration

Sound Formats
Definition: Sound formats determine how audio data is stored, compressed, and played. Formats
vary based on quality, compression, and compatibility.
Common Sound Formats:
1. WAV (.wav):
o Uncompressed, high quality
o Preferred in studios and professional production
2. MP3 (.mp3):
o Compressed format with smaller file size
o Widely used for online streaming and sharing
3. AAC (.aac):
o Advanced Audio Coding
o Better quality than MP3 at similar bit rates
o Commonly used in Apple devices
4. FLAC (.flac):
o Lossless compression
o Preserves original audio quality