MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Rasipuram - 637 408

COURSE CODE & TITLE – 19ECE14 / WIRELESS

COMMUNICATION

Presentation by
Mrs.V.Hema
AP-ECE
 History of wireless communication
• Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896
• Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in analog
signal
• Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean
• 1914 – first voice communication over radio waves
• Communications satellites launched in 1960s
• Advances in wireless technology
• Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication satellites
• More recently
• Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular technology
Types of wireless communication

celullar wireless computer network radio service

Electromagnetic radiation spectrum
 Wavelength of Some Technologies

• GSM Phones:
• frequency ~= 900 Mhz
• wavelength ~= 33cm
• PCS Phones
• frequency ~= 1.8 Ghz
• wavelength ~= 17.5 cm
• Bluetooth:
• frequency ~= 2.4Gz
• wavelength ~= 12.5cm
Wireless applications (services)
 Advantages and disadvantages of
wireless communication
• advantages:
• mobility
• a wireless communication network is a solution in areas where cables
are impossible to install (e.g. hazardous areas, long distances etc.)
• easier to maintain
• disadvantages:
• has security vulnerabilities
• high costs for setting the infrastructure
• unlike wired comm., wireless comm. is influenced by physical
obstructions, climatic conditions, interference from other wireless
devices
 Cellular telephone

• Started as a replacement to the wired telephone

• Early generations offered voice and limited data
• Current third and fourth generation systems
• Voice
• Texting
• Social networking
• Mobile apps
• Mobile Web
• Mobile commerce
• Video streaming

Introduction 1-8
 Wireless Impact

• Profound
• Shrinks the world
• Always on
• Always connected
• Changes the way people communicate
• Social networking
• Converged global wireless network

Introduction 1-9
 Figure 1.1 Some Milestones
in Wireless Communications

Introduction 1-10
 Global cellular network

• Growth
• 11 million users in 1990
• Over 7 billion today
• Mobile devices
• Convenient
• Location aware
• Only economical form of communications in some places

Introduction 1-11
 Global cellular network
• Generations
• 1G – Analog
• 2G – Digital voice
• Voice services with some moderate rate data services
• 3G – Packet networks
• Universal Mobile Phone Service (UMTS)
• CDMA2000
• 4G – New wireless approach (OFDM)
• Higher spectral efficiency
• 100 Mbps for high mobility users
• 1 Gbps for low mobility access
• Long Term Evolution (LTE) and LTE-Advanced

Introduction 1-12
 Mobile device revolution

• Originally just mobile phones

• Today’s devices
• Multi-megabit Internet access
• Mobile apps
• High megapixel digital cameras
• Access to multiple types of wireless networks
• Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 3G, and 4G
• Several on-board sensors
• Key to how many people interact with the world around
them

Introduction 1-13
 Mobile device revolution
• Better use of spectrum
• Decreased costs
• Limited displays and input capabilities
• Tablets provide balance between smartphones and PCs
• Long distance
• Cellular 3G and 4G
• Local areas
• Wi-Fi
• Short distance
• Bluetooth, ZigBee

Introduction 1-14
 Future trends
• LTE-Advanced and gigabit Wi-Fi now being deployed
• Machine-to-machine communications
• The “Internet of Things”
• Devices interact with each other
• Healthcare, disaster recovery, energy savings, security and surveillance,
environmental awareness, education, manufacturing, and many others
• Information dissemination
• Data mining and decision support
• Automated adaptation and control
• Home sensors collaborate with home appliances, HVAC systems, lighting
systems, electric vehicle charging stations, and utility companies.
• Eventually could interact in their own forms of social networking

Introduction 1-15
 Future trends

• Machine-to-machine communications
• 100-fold increase in the number of devices
• Type of communication would involve many short
messages
• Control applications will have real-time delay requirements
• Much more stringent than for human interaction

Introduction 1-16
• Future networks
•
Future trends
1000-fold increase in data traffic by 2020
• 5G – Not defined but envisioned by 2020
• Technologies
• Network densification – many small cells
• Device-centric architectures - focus on what a device needs
• Massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) – 10s or 100s of antennas
• To focus antenna beams toward intended devices
• Millimeter wave (mmWave) - frequencies in the 30 GHz to 300 GHz bands
• Have much available bandwidth.
• But require more transmit power and have higher attenuation due to obstructions
• Native support for machine to machine communication
• Sustained low data rates, massive number of devices, and very low delays.

Introduction 1-17
 The trouble with wireless

• Wireless is convenient and less expensive, but not

perfect
• Limitations and political and technical difficulties
inhibit wireless technologies
• Wireless channel
• Line-of-sight is best but not required
• Signals can still be received
• Transmission through objects
• Reflections off of objects
• Scattering of signals
• Diffraction around edges of objects

Introduction 1-18
 The trouble with wireless

• Wireless channel
• Reflections can cause multiple copies of the signal to
arrive
• At different times and attenuations
• Creates the problem of multipath fading
• Signals add together to degrade the final signal
• Noise
• Interference from other users
• Doppler spread caused by movement

Introduction 1-19
• Modulation – Combating problems
use a signal format to send as many bits as possible
• Error control coding – add extra bits so errors are
detected/corrected.
• Adaptive modulation and coding – dynamically adjust modulation
and coding to current channel conditions.
• Equalization – counteract the multipath effects of the channel.
• Multiple-input multiple-output systems – use multiple antennas
• Point signals strongly in certain directions
• Send parallel streams of data.
• Direct sequence spread spectrum – expand the signal bandwidth
• Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing – break a signal into
many lower rate bit streams
• Each is less susceptible to multipath problems.
Introduction 1-20
 Political difficulties

• Between companies
• Need common standards so products interoperate
• Some areas have well agreed-upon standards
• Wi-Fi, LTE
• Not true for Internet of Things technologies
• Spectrum regulations
• Governments dictate how spectrum is used
• Many different types of uses and users
• Some frequencies have somewhat restrictive bandwidths and
power levels
• Others have much more bandwidth available

Introduction 1-21
 Electromagnetic Signal

• Function of time
• Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
• Signal consists of components of different frequencies

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 Time-Domain Concepts

• Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion

over time
• No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
• Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level
for some period of time and then changes to another
constant level
• Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
repeats over time
s(t +T) = s(t) -∞ < t < +∞ TRA
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• where T is the period of the signal MIS
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 Frequency-Domain Concepts

• Fundamental frequency - when all frequency

components of a signal are integer multiples of
one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental
frequency
• Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
• Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of
a signal
• Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) -
narrow band of frequencies that most of the
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signal’s energy is contained in MIS

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2.4 Addition of frequency Components(T = 1/f)
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-25
 Frequency-Domain Concepts

• Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist

of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves)
at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period
of the fundamental frequency

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2.5 Frequency Components of Square Wave
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-27
Relationship between Data Rate and
Bandwidth
• The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
• Conclusions
• Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
• BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
• AND, for any given medium, the greater the
bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost
• HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates TRA
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 Data Communication Terms

• Data - entities that convey meaning, or information

• Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations
of data
• Transmission - communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals

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 Examples of Analog and Digital
Data
• Analog
• Video
• Audio
• Digital
• Text
• Integers
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 Analog Signals

• A continuously varying electromagnetic wave

that may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
• Examples of media:
• Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
• Fiber optic cable
• Atmosphere or space propagation
• Analog signals can propagate analog and digital TRA

data NS
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 Digital Signals

• A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted

over a copper wire medium
• Generally cheaper than analog signaling
• Less susceptible to noise interference
• Suffer more from attenuation
• Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data
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 Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal
• Digital data, digitalCombinations
signal
• Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-
analog equipment
• Analog data, digital signal
• Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
• Digital data, analog signal
• Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
• Examples include optical fiber and satellite
• Analog data, analog signal TRA
• Analog data easily converted to analog signal NS
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2.8 Analog and Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-34
 Analog Transmission

• Transmit analog signals without regard to

content
• Attenuation limits length of transmission link
• Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for
longer distances but cause distortion
• Analog data can tolerate distortion TRA

• Introduces errors in digital data

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 Digital Transmission

• Concerned with the content of the signal

• Attenuation endangers integrity of data
• Digital Signal
• Repeaters achieve greater distance
• Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
• Analog signal carrying digital data
• Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal TRA
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• Generates new, clean analog signal

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 About Channel Capacity

• Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can

be achieved
• For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit
data rate?
• Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data
can be transmitted over a given communication path,
or channel, under given conditions
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 Concepts Related to Channel
Capacity
• Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
• Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and the
nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
• Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
• Error rate - rate at which errors occur TRA
• Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and NS
MIS
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 Classifications of Transmission
Media
• Transmission Medium
• Physical path between transmitter and receiver
• Guided Media
• Waves are guided along a solid medium
• E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
• Unguided Media
• Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
• Usually referred to as wireless transmission TRA
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• E.g., atmosphere, outer space MIS
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 Unguided Media

• Transmission and reception are achieved by means

of an antenna
• Configurations for wireless transmission
• Directional
• Omnidirectional

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2.10 Electromagnetic spectrum of Telecommunications
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-41
 General Frequency Ranges
• Microwave frequency range
• 1 GHz to 40 GHz
• Directional beams possible
• Suitable for point-to-point transmission
• Used for satellite communications
• Radio frequency range
• 30 MHz to 1 GHz
• Suitable for omnidirectional applications
• Infrared frequency range
• Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
• Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
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 Terrestrial Microwave

• Description of common microwave antenna

• Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
• Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
• Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
• Located at substantial heights above ground level
• Applications
• Long haul telecommunications service TRA
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• Short point-to-point links between buildings MIS

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 Satellite Microwave
• Description of communication satellite
• Microwave relay station
• Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
• Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
• Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission TRA
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• Private business networks MIS

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 Broadcast Radio

• Description of broadcast radio antennas

• Omnidirectional
• Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
• Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
• Applications
• Broadcast radio
• VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz TRA
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• Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television MIS
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 Multiplexing

• Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds

capacity required for transmission of a single signal
• Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single
medium
• More efficient use of transmission medium

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2.11 Multiplexing
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-47
 Reasons for Widespread Use of
Multiplexing
• Cost per kbps of transmission facility
declines with an increase in the data rate
• Cost of transmission and receiving
equipment declines with increased data rate
• Most individual data communicating devices
require relatively modest data rate support TRA
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 Multiplexing Techniques

• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of
the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given
signal
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate of
the medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital
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2.12 FDM and TDM
TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS 2-50
 Spectrum considerations

• Controlled by regulatory bodies

• Carrier frequency
• Signal Power
• Multiple Access Scheme
• Divide into time slots –Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
• Divide into frequency bands – Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA)
• Different signal encodings – Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)

Overview of Wireless 5-51

 Spectrum considerations

• Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the

United States regulates spectrum
• Military
• Broadcasting
• Public Safety
• Mobile
• Amateur
• Government exclusive, non-government exclusive, or both
• Many other categories

Overview of Wireless 5-52

 Spectrum considerations

• Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands

• Can be used without a license
• As long as power and spread spectrum regulations are
followed
• ISM bands are used for
• WLANs
• Wireless Personal Area networks
• Internet of Things

Overview of Wireless 5-53

 Propagation Modes

• Ground-wave propagation
• Sky-wave propagation
• Line-of-sight propagation

Overview of Wireless 5-54

5.1 Wireless Propagation
Modes

Overview of Wireless 5-55

 Ground Wave Propagation

• Follows contour of the earth

• Can propagate considerable distances
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz
• Example
• AM radio

Overview of Wireless 5-56

 Sky Wave Propagation

• Signal reflected from ionized layer of

atmosphere back down to earth
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and
forth between ionosphere and earth’s surface
• Reflection effect caused by refraction
• Examples
• Amateur radio
• CB radio

Overview of Wireless 5-57

 Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within
line of sight
• Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
• Ground communication – antennas within effective line of
site due to refraction
• Refraction – bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
• Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
• When wave changes medium, speed changes
• Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

Overview of Wireless 5-58

 Five basic propagation mechanisms

1. Free-space propagation
2. Transmission
• Through a medium
• Refraction occurs at boundaries
3. Reflections
• Waves impinge upon surfaces that are large compared to the
signal wavelength
4. Diffraction
• Secondary waves behind objects with sharp edges
5. Scattering
• Interactions between small objects or rough surfaces

Overview of Wireless 5-59

 antennas

• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors
• Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
• Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be
used for transmission and reception

Overview of Wireless 5-60

 Radiation Patterns
• Radiation pattern
• Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna
• Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
• Beam width (or half-power beam width)
• Measure of directivity of antenna
• Reception pattern
• Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern
• Sidelobes
• Extra energy in directions outside the mainlobe
• Nulls
• Very low energy in between mainlobe and sidelobes

Overview of Wireless 5-61

5.2 Antenna Radiation
Patterns

Overview of Wireless 5-62

 Attenuation

• Strength of signal falls off with distance over

transmission medium
• Attenuation factors for unguided media:
• Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
• Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
• Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion

Overview of Wireless 5-63

 Models Derived from Empirical
Measurements
• Need to design systems based on empirical data applied to a
particular environment
• To determine power levels, tower heights, height of mobile antennas
• Okumura developed a model, later refined by Hata
• Detailed measurement and analysis of the Tokyo area
• Among the best accuracy in a wide variety of situations
• Predicts path loss for typical environments
• Urban
• Small, medium sized city
• Large city
• Suburban
• Rural

Overview of Wireless 5-64

 Categories of Noise

• Thermal Noise
• Intermodulation noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse Noise

Overview of Wireless 5-65

 Thermal Noise

• Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons

• Present in all electronic devices and transmission
media
• Cannot be eliminated
• Function of temperature
• Particularly significant for satellite communication

Overview of Wireless 5-66

 Noise
• Intermodulation noiseTerminology
– occurs if signals with different
frequencies share the same medium
• Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is
the sum or difference of original frequencies
• Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between signal paths
• Impulse noise – irregular pulses or noise spikes
• Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
• Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and
flaws in the communications system

Overview of Wireless 5-67

 Other Impairments

• Atmospheric absorption – water vapor and oxygen

contribute to attenuation
• Multipath – obstacles reflect signals so that multiple
copies with varying delays are received
• Refraction – bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere

Overview of Wireless 5-68

 The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
• Reflection, diffraction, and scattering
• Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
• If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise
declines, making detection more difficult
• Intersymbol interference (ISI)
• One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit
• Rapid signal fluctuations
• Over a few centimeters

Overview of Wireless 5-69

 5.5 Sketch of Three
Important Propagation
Mechanisms

Overview of Wireless 5-70

 Types of Fading

• Large-scale fading
• Signal variations over large distances
• Path loss LdB as we have seen already
• Shadowing
• Statistical variations
• Rayleigh fading
• Ricean fading

Overview of Wireless 5-71

 Types of fading
• Doppler Spread
• Frequency fluctuations caused by movement
• Coherence time Tc characterizes Doppler shift
• How long a channel remains the same
• Coherence time Tc >> Tb bit time → slow fading
• The channel does not change during the bit time
• Otherwise fast fading
• Example 6.11: Tc = 70 ms, bit rate rb = 100 kbs
• Bit time Tb = 1/100 × 103 = 10 μs
• Tc >> Tb? 70 ms >> 10 μs?
• True, so slow fading

Overview of Wireless 5-72

 Types of fading
• Multipath fading
• Multiple signals arrive at the receiver
• Coherence bandwidth Bc characterizes multipath
• Bandwidth over which the channel response remains relatively constant
• Related to delay spread, the spread in time of the arrivals of multipath signals
• Signal bandwidth Bs is proportional to the bit rate
• If Bc >> Bs, then flat fading
• The signal bandwidth fits well within the channel bandwidth
• Otherwise, frequency selective fading
• Example 6.11: Bc = 150 kHz, bit rate rb = 100 kbs
• Assume signal bandwidth Bs ≈ rb, Bs = 100 kHz
• Bc >> Bs? 150 kHz >> 100 kHz?
• Using a factor of 10 for “>>”, 150 kHz is not more than 10 ×100 kHz
• False, so frequency selective fading

Overview of Wireless 5-73

 Channel correction Mechanisms

• Forward error correction

• Adaptive equalization
• Adaptive modulation and coding
• Diversity techniques and MIMO
• OFDM
• Spread sprectrum
• Bandwidth expansion

Overview of Wireless 5-74

 Forward Error Correction

• Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data block

• Code is a function of the data bits
• Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
• If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
• If error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver attempts to
determine bits in error and correct
• Subject of Chapter 10

Overview of Wireless 5-75

5.15 Forward Error
Correction Process

Overview of Wireless 5-76

 Adaptive Equalization
• Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog or
digital information
• Analog voice or video
• Digital data, digitized voice or video
• Used to combat intersymbol interference
• Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back into its
original time interval
• Techniques
• Lumped analog circuits
• Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms

Overview of Wireless 5-77

• Diversity is based on the fact that individual channels
Diversity Techniques
experience independent fading events
• Space diversity – techniques involving physical transmission
path, spacing antennas
• Frequency diversity – techniques where the signal is spread
out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on multiple
frequency carriers
• Time diversity – techniques aimed at spreading the data out
over time
• Use of diversity
• Selection diversity – select the best signal
• Combining diversity – combine the signals

Overview of Wireless 5-78

 MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE
OUTPUT (MIMO) ANTENNAS
• Use antenna arrays for
• Diversity – different signals from different antennas
• Multiple streams – parallel data streams
• Beamforming – directional antennas
• Multi-user MIMO – directional beams to multiple
simultaneous users
• Modern systems
• 4 × 4 (4 transmitter and 4 reciever antennas)
• 8×8
• Two dimensional arrays of 64 antennas
• Future: Massive MIMO with many more antennas

Overview of Wireless 5-79

 Adaptive modulation and coding
(AMC)
• The modulation process formats the signal to best
transmit bits
• To overcome noise
• To transmit as many bits as possible
• Coding detects and corrects errors
• AMC adapts to channel conditions
• 100’s of times per second
• Measures channel conditions
• Sends messages between transmitter and receiver to
coordinate changes

Overview of Wireless 5-80

 Bandwidth expansion
• A signal can only provide a limited bps/Hz
• More bandwidth is needed
• Carrier aggregation
• Combine multiple channels
• Example: Fourth-generation LTE combines third-generation carriers
• Frequency reuse
• Limit propagation range to an area
• Use the same frequencies again when sufficiently far away
• Use large coverage areas (macro cells) and smaller coverage areas (outdoor picocells
or relays and indoor femtocells)
• Millimeter wave (mmWave)
• Higher carrier frequencies have more bandwidth available
• 30 to 300 GHz bands with millimeter wavelengths
• Yet these are expensive to use and have problems with obstructions

Overview of Wireless 5-81

Figure 14.14 LTE Carrier
Aggregation

Overview of Wireless 5-82

 signal Encoding Techniques

• Digital data to analog signal

• Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
• Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
• Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
• Frequency difference near carrier frequency
• Phase-shift keying (PSK)
• Phase of carrier signal shifted

Overview of Wireless 5-83

5.10 Modulation of Analog
Signals for Digital Data

Overview of Wireless 5-84

 Amplitude-Shift Keying

• One binary digit represented by presence of

carrier, at constant amplitude
• Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier 
s (t ) = 
(
 Acos 2p f ct )
binary 1
 0 binary 0


• where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)

Overview of Wireless 5-85

 Amplitude-Shift Keying

• Susceptible to sudden gain changes

• Inefficient modulation technique
• Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

Overview of Wireless 5-86

 Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
• Two binary digits represented by two
 (
 Acos 2near
different frequencies
s (t ) = 
)
p f1tthe carrier
binary 1
frequency


Acos 2p (
f 2
t )
binary 0

• where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by

equal but opposite amounts fd

Overview of Wireless 5-87

 Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio
transmission
• Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use
coaxial cable

Overview of Wireless 5-88

 Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
• More than two frequencies are used
• More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to error
()
si t = Acos2p fit 1£i £ M

• f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
• f c = the carrier frequency
• f d = the difference frequency
• M = number of different signal elements = 2L
• L = number of bits per signal element

Overview of Wireless 5-89

 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

• Two-level PSK (BPSK)

• Uses two 
s (t ) = 
 ( )
Acos
phases 2p f t binary digits
to represent binary 1
( )
c

Acos 2p f c
t + p binary 0

Acos(2p f t )
 binary 1
-Acos(2p f t ) binary 0
= c
 c

Overview of Wireless 5-90

 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying
(PSK)
• Four-level PSK (QPSK) æ pö
• Each element Acos çè 2p + one
fctthan
ì æ 4 ÷ø bit
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Overview of Wireless 5-91
 CODING AND ERROR
CONTROL
• Error detection codes
• Detects the presence of an error
• Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
• Block of data with error is discarded
• Transmitter retransmits that block of data
• Error correction codes, or forward correction
codes (FEC)
• Designed to detect and correct errors

Overview of Wireless 5-92

 Error Detection Process

• Transmitter
• For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is
calculated from data bits
• Check bits are appended to data bits
• Receiver
• Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
• Calculates check bits from received data bits
• Compares calculated check bits against received check bits
• Detected error occurs if mismatch

Overview of Wireless 5-93

5.13 Error Detection
Process

Overview of Wireless 5-94

 Parity Check

• Parity bit appended to a block of data

• Even parity
• Added bit ensures an even number of 1s
• Odd parity
• Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s
• Example, 7-bit character [1110001]
• Even parity [11100010]
• Odd parity [11100011]

Overview of Wireless 5-95

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

• Transmitter
• For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an (n-k)-bit frame
check sequence (FCS)
• Resulting frame of n bits is exactly divisible by
predetermined number
• Receiver
• Divides incoming frame by predetermined number
• If no remainder, assumes no error

Overview of Wireless 5-96

 Wireless Transmission Errors

• Error detection requires retransmission

• Detection inadequate for wireless applications
• Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a large
number of retransmissions
• Long propagation delay compared to transmission time

Overview of Wireless 5-97

 Block Error Correction Codes

• Transmitter
• Forward error correction (FEC) encoder maps each k-bit
block into an n-bit block codeword
• Codeword is transmitted; analog for wireless transmission
• Receiver
• Incoming signal is demodulated
• Block passed through an FEC decoder

Overview of Wireless 5-98

5.15 Forward Error
Correction Process

Overview of Wireless 5-99

 FEC Decoder Outcomes

• No errors present
• Codeword produced by decoder matches original
codeword
• Decoder detects and corrects bit errors
• Decoder detects but cannot correct bit errors;
reports uncorrectable error
• Decoder incorrectly corrects bit errors
• Error pattern looks like a different block of data was sent
• Decoder detects no bit errors, though errors are
present

Overview of Wireless 5-100

 Block Code Principles

• Hamming distance – for 2 n-bit binary

sequences, the number of different bits
• E.g., v1=011011; v2=110001; d(v1, v2)=3
• Redundancy – ratio of redundant bits to data
bits
• Code rate – ratio of data bits to total bits
• Coding gain – the reduction in the required
Eb/N0 to achieve a specified BER of an error-
correcting coded system

Overview of Wireless 5-101

 Decoding process
• Coding table

• Received: 00100
• Not valid, error is detected
• Correction?
• One bit away from 00000
• Two bits away from 00111
• Three bits away from 11110
• Four bits away from 11110
• Most likely 00000 was sent, assume data was 00
• But others could have been sent, albeit much less likely

Overview of Wireless 5-102

 Decoding process

• Received: 01100
• Two bits from 00000
• Two bits from 11110
• No other codes closer
• Cannot decode. Only know bit errors are detected

Overview of Wireless 5-103

 Automatic Repeat Request

• Mechanism used in data link control and transport

protocols
• Relies on use of an error detection code (such as
CRC)
• Flow Control
• Error Control
Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
104
 Flow Control

• Assures that transmitting entity does not

overwhelm a receiving entity with data
• Protocols with flow control mechanism allow
multiple PDUs in transit at the same time
• PDUs arrive in same order they’re sent
• Sliding-window flow control
• Transmitter maintains list (window) of sequence
numbers allowed to send
• Receiver maintains list allowed to receive Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
105
10.18 Sliding-Window
Depiction

Coding and Error Control 10-106

 Source system A Destination system B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P0
P1
P2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10.19 Example of a Sliding- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Window Protocol RR 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

P3
P4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P5
P6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4
RR
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Coding and Error Control 10-107

 Flow Control

• Reasons for breaking up a block of data before

transmitting:
• Limited buffer size of receiver
• Retransmission of PDU due to error requires smaller
amounts of data to be retransmitted
• On shared medium, larger PDUs occupy medium for
extended period, causing delays at other sending stations

Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
108
 Error Control

• Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission

errors
• Types of errors:
• Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive
• Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors

Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
109
10.17 Model of PDU
Transmission

Coding and Error Control 10-110

 Error Control Requirements
• Error detection
• Receiver detects errors and discards PDUs
• Positive acknowledgement
• Destination returns acknowledgment of received, error-
free PDUs
• Retransmission after timeout
• Source retransmits unacknowledged PDU
• Negative acknowledgement and retransmission
• Destination returns negative acknowledgment to PDUs inCod
error ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
111
 Go-back-N ARQ

• Acknowledgments
• RR = receive ready (no errors occur)
• REJ = reject (error detected)
• Contingencies
• Damaged PDU
• Damaged RR
• Damaged REJ Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
112
10.20 Go-back-N ARQ

Coding and Error Control 10-113

 HYBRID ARQ

• Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ)

• Neither FEC or ARQ is adequate in practical situations
• FEC may add unnecessary redundancy
• ARQ may cause excessive delays from retransmissions
• HARQ is widely used
• Uses combination of FEC and ARQ
Cod
ing
and
Err
or
Con
trol
10-
114
 orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (ofdm)
• OFDM created great expansion in wireless networks
• Greater efficiency in bps/Hz
• Main air interface in the change from 3G to 4G
• Also expanded 802.11 rates
• Critical technology for broadband wireless access
• WiMAX

Overview of Wireless 5-115

 How OFDM works

• Also called multicarrier modulation

• Start with a data stream of R bps
• Could be sent with bandwidth Nfb
• With bit duration 1/R
• OFDM splits into N parallel data streams
• Called subcarriers
• Each with bandwidth fb
• And data rate R/N (bit time N/R)

Overview of Wireless 5-116

 Orthogonality

• The spacing of the fb frequencies allows tight packing

of signals
• Actually with overlap between the signals
• Signals at spacing of fb ,2fb, 3fb ,etc.
• The choice of fb is related to the bit rate to make the
signals orthogonal
• Traditional FDM makes signals completely avoid
frequency overlap
• OFDM allows overlap which greatly increases capacity

Overview of Wireless 5-117

Figure 5.24 Illustration of
Orthogonality of OFDM

Overview of Wireless 5-118

 Benefits of OFDM
• Frequency selective fading only affects some subcarriers
• More importantly, OFDM overcomes intersymbol interference
(ISI)
• ISI is a caused by multipath signals arriving in later bits
• OFDM bit times are much, much longer (by a factor of N)
• ISI is dramatically reduced
• OFDM’s long bit times eliminate most of the ISI
• OFDM also uses a cyclic prefix (CP) to overcome the residual ISI
• Adds additional time to the OFDM symbol before the real data is sent
• Called the guard interval
• ISI diminishes before the data starts

Overview of Wireless 5-119

 OFDMA
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) uses
OFDM to share the wireless channel
• Different users can have different slices of time and different groups of
subcarriers
• Subcarriers are allocated in groups
• Called subchannels or resource blocks
• Too much computation to allocate every subcarrier separately
• Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA)
• Similar structure and performance to OFDMA
• Lower peak to average power ratio than OFMDA
• Mobile user benefits – battery life, power efficiency, lower cost
• Good for uplinks
• Multiple access is not possible
• At one time, all subcarriers must be dedicated to one user

Overview of Wireless 5-120

 Spread Spectrum

• Input is fed into a channel encoder

• Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
• Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits
• Spreading code or spreading sequence
• Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number
generator
• Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of
signal to be transmitted

Overview of Wireless 5-121

 Spread Spectrum

• On receiving end, digital sequence is used to

demodulate the spread spectrum signal
• Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover
data

Overview of Wireless 5-122

Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
• Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio
frequencies
• A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
• Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of input
signal
• Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals
• Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
• Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
• At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is selected

Overview of Wireless 5-123

5.28 Frequency Hopping
Example

Overview of Wireless 5-124

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
• Each bit in original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
• Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• One technique combines digital information
stream with the spreading code bit stream using
exclusive-OR (Figure 5.30)

Overview of Wireless 5-125

 Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
• Basic Principles of CDMA
• D = rate of data signal
• Break each bit into k chips
• Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
• Chip data rate of new channel = kD
• Each user encodes with a different spreading code

Overview of Wireless 5-126