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DMS 10CS34

PART – A

UNIT – 1 Set Theory: 6 Hours

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 Sets and Subsets,
 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory,

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 Counting and Venn Diagrams,
 A First Word on Probability,
 Countable and
 Uncountable Sets

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DISRETE MATHEMATICAL
STRUCTURES

UNIT I 6 Hours
Set Theory

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Sets: A set is a collection of objects, called elements of the set. A set can be
presented by listing its elements between braces: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The symbol e is

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used to express that an element is (or belongs to) a set. For instance 3 e A. Its
negation is represented by /e, e.g. 7 /e A. If the set Is finite, its number of elements
is represented |A|, e.g. if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then |A| = 5

Some important sets are the following:

1.
2.
3.
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Q = the set of rational numbers.
R = the set of real numbers.
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N = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } = the set of natural numbers.
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } = the set of integers.
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5. C = the set of complex numbers.

If S is one of those sets then we also use the following notations :

1. S + = set of positive elements in S, for instance

Z + = {1, 2, 3, · · · } = the set of positive integers.
2. S − = set of negative elements in S, for instance
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Z− = {−1, −2, −3, · · · } = the set of negative integers.

3. S ∗ = set of elements in S excluding zero, for instance R∗ = the set of non zero real
numbers.
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Set-builder notation: An alternative way to define a set, called set- builder notation, is
by stating a property (predicate) P (x) verified by exactly its elements, for instance
A = {x e Z | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} = ―set of integers x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 5‖—i.e.: A = {1, 2, 3,
4, 5}. In general: A = {x e U | p(x)}, where U is the universe of discourse in which
the predicate P (x) must be interpreted, or A = {x | P (x)} if the universe of discourse
for P (x) is implicitly understood. In set theory the term universal set is often used in
place of ―universe of discourse‖ for a given predicate.

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Principle of Extension: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same
elements, i.e.: A = B ≡ ∀x (x e A ↔ x e B) .

Subset: We say that A is a subset of set B, or A is contained in B, and we represent

it ―A ⊆ B‖, if all elements of A are in B, e.g., if A = {a, b, c} and
B = {a, b, c, d, e} then A ⊆ B.

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Proper subset: A is a proper subset of B, represented ―A ⊂ B‖, if A ⊆ B
but A = B, i.e., there is some element in B which is not in A.

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Empty Set: A set with no elements is called empty set (or null set,
or void set ), and is represented by ∅ or {}.

Note that nothing prevents a set from possibly being an element of another set (which
is not the same as being a subset!). For i n stance
if A = {1, a, {3, t}, {1, 2, 3}} and B= {3, t}, then obviously B is an element of A,
i.e., B e A.
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Power Set: The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A,
and is represented P(A). For instance, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
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P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A} .

Multisets: Two ordinary sets are identical if they have the same elements, so for
instance, {a, a, b} and {a, b} are the same set because they have exactly the same
elements, namely a and b. However, in some applications it might be useful to
allow repeated elements in a set. In that case we use multisets, which are
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mathematical entities similar to sets, but with possibly repeated elements. So, as
multisets, {a, a, b} and {a, b} would be considered different, since in the first one the
element a occurs twice and in the second one it occurs only once.
Set Operations:
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1. Intersection : The common elements of two sets:

A ∩ B = {x | (x e A) ∧ (x e B)} .
If A ∩ B = ∅, the sets are said to be disjoint.

2. Union : The set of elements that belong to either of two sets:

A ∪ B = {x | (x e A) ∨ (x e B)} .

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3. Complement : The set of elements (in the universal set) that do not belong to a
given set:
A = {x e U | x /e A} .

4. Difference or Relative Complement : The set of elements that belong to a set but
not to another:
A − B = {x | (x e A) ∧ (x /e B)} = A ∩ B .

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5. Symmetric Difference : Given two sets, their symmetric differ- ence is the set of
elements that belong to either one or the other set but not both.
A ⊕ B = {x | (x e A) ⊕ (x e B)} .

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It can be expressed also in the following way:
A ⊕ B = A ∪ B − A ∩ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A) .

Counting with Venn Diagrams:

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A Venn diagram with n sets intersecting in the most general way divides the plane
into 2n regions. If we have information about the number of elements of some portions
of the diagram, then we can find the number of elements in each of the regions and
use that information for obtaining the number of elements in other portions of the
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plane.

Example : Let M , P and C be the sets of students taking Mathe- matics courses,
Physics courses and Computer Science courses respec- tively in a university. Assume
|M | = 300, |P | = 350, |C | = 450,
|M ∩ P | = 100, |M ∩ C | = 150, |P ∩ C | = 75, |M ∩ P ∩ C | = 10. How
many students are taking exactly one of those courses? (fig. 2.7)
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We see that |(M ∩P )−(M ∩P ∩C )| = 100−10 = 90, |(M ∩C )−(M ∩

P ∩ C )| = 150 − 10 = 140 and |(P ∩ C ) − (M ∩ P ∩ C )| = 75 − 10 = 65.
Then the region corresponding to students taking Mathematics courses only has
cardinality 300−(90+10+140) = 60. Analogously we compute the number of students
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taking Physics courses only (185) and taking Computer Science courses only (235).
The sum 60 + 185 + 235 = 480 is the number of students taking exactly one of those
courses.

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Venn Diagrams:

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Venn diagrams are graphic representa- tions of sets as enclosed areas in the plane.
For instance, in figure 2.1, the rectangle represents the universal set (the set of all
elements con- sidered in a given problem) and the shaded region represents a set A.
The other figures represent various set operations.

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Laws of set theory:The set operations verify the following
properties:

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Generalized Union and Intersection: Given a collec- tion of sets A1 , A2 , . . . ,

AN , their union is defined as the set of elements that belong to at least one of the sets
(here n represents an integer in the range from 1 to N ):

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Analogously, their intersection is the set of elements that belong to all the sets
simultaneously:

These definitions can be applied to infinite collections of sets as well. For instance

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assume that Sm = {kn | k = 2, 3, 4, . . . } = set of multiples of n greater than n. Then

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Partitions: A partition of a set X is a collection S of non overlapping non empty
subsets of X whose union is the whole X . For instance a partition of X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10} could be
S = {{1, 2, 4, 8}, {3, 6}, {5, 7, 9, 10}} .
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Given a partition S of a set X , every element of X belongs to exactly one member of
S.
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Example : The division of the integers Z into even and odd numbers is a partition: S =
{E, O}, where E = {2n | n e Z}, O = {2n + 1 | n e Z}.

Example : The divisions of Z in negative integers, positive integers and zero is a

partition: S = {Z+ , Z − , {0}}.
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Ordered Pairs, Cartesian Product:

An ordinary pair {a, b} is a set with two elements. In a set the order of the
elements is irrelevant, so {a, b} = {b, a}. If the order of the elements is relevant,
then we use a different object called ordered pair, represented (a, b). Now (a, b) = (b,
a) (unless a = b). In general (a, b) = (a!, b! ) iff a = a! and b = b! .
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Given two sets A, B, their Cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a e A and b e B:
A × B = {(a, b) | (a e A) ∧ (b e B)} .
Analogously we can define triples or 3-tuples (a, b, c), 4-tuples (a, b, c, d),
. . . , n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ), and the corresponding 3-fold, 4-fold,. . . ,
n-fold Cartesian products:
A1 × A2 × · · · × Am =

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{(a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) | (a1 e A1 ) ∧ (a2 e A2 ) ∧ · · · ∧ (am e Am )} .

If all the sets in a Cartesian product are the same, then we can use an exponent: A2 =
A × A, A3 = A × A × A, etc. In general:
(m times)
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= A × A ×· · · × A .

A First Word on Probability:

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Introduction: Assume that we perform an experiment such as tossing a coin or
rolling a die. The set of possible outcomes is called the sample space of the experiment.
An event is a subset of the sample space. For instance, if we toss a coin three times,
the sample space is

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S — {H H H, H H T , H T H, H T T , T H H, T H T , T T H, T T T } .
The event ―at least two heads in a row‖ would be the subset
E — {H H H, H H T , T H H } .

If all possible outcomes of an experiment have the same likelihood of occurrence, then

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the probability of an event A ⊂ S is given by Laplace‘s rule:
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For instance, the probability of getting at least two heads in a row in
the above experiment is 3/8.
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Properties of probability:Let P be a probability func- tion on a sample space S.

Then:

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THE CONCEPT OF PROBALITY:

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Pr(A)=|A| / |S| where |A| is an event and |S| is sample space
Pr(A)=|A| / |S|=(|S|-|A|)/|S|= 1- (|A|/|S|)= 1-Pr(A).
Pr(A)=0 if and only if Pr(A)=1 and Pr(A)=1 if and only if
Pr(A)=0
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ADDITION THEROM:
Suppose A and B are 2 events is a sample space S then A UB is an event in S consisting of
outcomes that are in A or B or both and A ∩ B is an event is S consisting of outcomes
thatarecommon to A and B. accordingly by the principle of addition we have
|AUB|=|A|+|B|-|A ∩B| and formula 1 gives
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Pr(AUB)=|AUB|/|S|=(|A|+|B|-|A ∩B|)/|S|
= |A|/|S| + |B|/|S| - |A ∩ B| / |S|
Pr(AUB) =Pr(A)+Pr(B)-Pr(A ∩ B)
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MUTUALY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS:

Two events A and B in a sample space are said to be mutual exclusive if A ∩ B =Ø then
Pr(A ∩B)=0 and the addition theorem reduces to Pr(AUB)= Pr(A)+Pr(B)
If A1,A2…….An are mutualy exclusive events, then Pr(A1UA2U…….UAn)=
Pr(A1)+Pr(A2)+….+Pr(An)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY:

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If E is an event in a finite sample S with Pr(E)>0 then the probability that an event A in S
occurs when E has already occurred is called the probability of A relative to E or the
conditional probability of A , given E
This probability, denoted by Pr(A|E) is defined by
Pr(A|E)=|A∩ E|/ |E| from this |A∩ E|=|E| . Pr(A|E)
Pr(A∩ E)= |A∩ E|/ S=|=|E|/|S| . Pr(A|E)=Pr(E) . Pr(A|E)
Example : Find the probability of obtaining a sum of 10 after rolling two fair dice. Find

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the probability of that event if we know that at least one of the dice shows 5 points.

Answer : We call E — ―obtaining sum 10‖ and F — ―at least one of the dice shows 5
points‖. The number of possible outcomes is 6 × 6 —

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36. The event ―obtaining a sum 10‖ is E — {(4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4)}, so
|E| — 3. Hence the probability is P (E) — |E|/|S| — 3/36 — 1/12.
Now, if we know that at least one of the dice shows 5 points then the
sample space shrinks to
F — {(1, 5), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5), (5, 5), (6, 5), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 6)} ,
so |F | — 11, and the ways to obtain a sum 10 are E n F — {(5, 5)},

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|E n F | — 1, so the probability is P (E | F ) — P (E n F )/P (F ) — 1/11.

MUTUALLY INDEPENDENT EVENTS:

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The event A and E in a sample space S are said to be mutually independent if the
probability of the occurrence of A is independent of the probability of the occurrence of E,
So that Pr(A)=Pr(A|E). For such events Pr(A ∩ E)=Pr(A).Pr(E)
This is known as the product rule or the multiplication theorem for mutually independent
events .
A generalization of expression is if A1,A2,A3………..An are mutually independent events
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in a sample space S then

Pr(A1∩ A2∩ ……………∩ An)=Pr(A1).Pr(A2)………..Pr(An)
Example : Assume that the probability that a shooter hits a target is p — 0.7, and that
hitting the target in different shots are independent events. Find:
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1. The probability that the shooter does not hit the target in one shot.
2. The probability that the shooter does not hit the target three times in a row.
3. The probability that the shooter hits the target at least once after shooting three
times.
Answer :

1. P (not hitting the target in one shot) — 1 — 0.7 — 0.3.

2. P (not hitting the target three times in a row) — 0.33 — 0.027.
3. P (hitting the target at least once in three shots) — 1—0.027 —
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COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

A set A is said to be the countable if A is a finite set .

A set which is not countable is called an uncountable set.

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THE ADDITION PRINCIPLE:
• |AUB|=|A|+|B|-|A∩ B| is the addition principle rule or the principle of inclusion –
exclusion.

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• |A-B|=|A|-|A∩ B|
• |A ∩ B|=|U|-|A|-|B| +|A∩ B|
• |AUBUC|=|A|+|B|+|C|-|A ∩B|-|B ∩ C|-|A ∩ C|+|A ∩ B ∩ C| is extended addition
principle
• NOTE: |A ∩ B ∩ C|=|AUBUC|
=|U|-|AUBUC|

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= |U|-|A|-|B| -|C|+|B ∩C|+|A ∩B|+|A ∩C|- |A ∩B ∩C|
|A-B-C|=|A|-|A ∩ B|-|A ∩ C|+|A ∩ B ∩ C|
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