Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION
TO SPSS
By: Dr. Nurhayani Romeo
 2.1 BASIC STEPS IN DATA ANALYSIS
You have two choices to get your data into SPSS.
SPSS is one of the statistical packages for
i. you can open previously saved SPSS data file; 1. Get your data into
read a spreadsheet or
data analysis. It provides a number of
ii. you can directly enter your data in the Data Editor.
SPSS
statistical procedures, graphical techniques
and data management facilities. Select
If you are
a procedure from the menus to run
familiar with basic concepts of statistical
Windows, techniques or to create a 2. Select a procedure
graphical display.
you will understand this chapter. The basic
steps that you have to consider are:
The variables in the data file are displayed 3. Select the variable
in a dialog box for the procedure. from the analysis

4. Run the selected

Results are generated and displayed in
the Output Viewer.
procedure and get your
results

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2.2 LAUNCH SPSS
SPSS are very different from MS Word and MS Excel. It always uses at least two
separate windows; Data Editor and SPSS viewer.

Data Editor

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2.2 LAUNCH SPSS (cont)
SPSS are very different from MS Word and MS Excel. It always uses at least two
separate windows; Data Editor and SPSS viewer.

SPSS Viewer

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2.2 LAUNCH SPSS (cont)
The Viewer or Output Navigator window is divided into two panes:
1. The left pane is known as outline pane, which contains an outline view.
2. The right pane of the window is the content pane which contains all the output

SPSS Viewer

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 2.3 MENUS
SPSS is menu driven and has a variety of pull-down menus available for the user.
Allow to create new files,
open existing file, read in Allow to make the status
files from other software bar and toolbar active, and
program, save file and to change particularly
print. characteristics of the
window.

Allow to define variable

Allows to modify and
and create variable
copy text from the
templates.
output or syntax
windows and to search
and replace text or data.

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2.3 MENUS (cont)
SPSS is menu driven and has a variety of pull-down menus available for the user.
Allow to change certain
variables in the data file
using command such as Extensions are custom
Recode and Rank cases, components that extend
as well as to create new Allow to select the
analysis that you required. the capabilities of IBM®
variables using the SPSS® Statistics.
Compute command.

Allow to create bar, line, Allow to display file and

area and pie charts, as variable information.
well as histograms and
scatter
plots.

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2.3 MENUS (cont)
SPSS is menu driven and has a variety of pull-down menus available for the user.

Allow to access
information on how to
use the many features of
SPSS.

From the window menu

you can change the active
window. The window with
a check mark is the active
one.

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 2.4 DATA EDITOR
The data editor window is the default window when you run SPSS. The data worksheet
works just like spreadsheet, where a column represents a variable and a row represents
and observation. Furthermore, it is a versatile spreadsheet-like system for defining,
entering, editing and displaying data.

Data View: Many of the features of the data view are very
similar to those found in spreadsheet. Several important
things you have to know.

Variable View: The variable view contains descriptions of

the attributes of each variable in the data file..
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 2.4.1 Data View

Rows are cases - Each row represents a case or an observation.

Columns are variables - Each column represents a variable or characteristic being measured.
Cells contain values - Each cell contains a single value of variable for a case. The cell is the
intersection of the case and the variable. Cell contains only data values. Cells in Data editor
cannot contain formula.

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 2.4.2 Variable View

The variable view contains descriptions of the attributes of each variable in the data file. In
the Variable view:
▪ Rows are variables
▪ Columns are variable attributes

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 2.4.2 Variable View (cont)
You can add or delete variables and modify attributes of variables, including Variable name, Variable type, Number of
digits or characters, Number of decimal places, Descriptive variable and value labels, User-defined missing values,
Column width and Measurement level. All of these attributes are saved when you save the data file.

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 2.4.2 Variable View (cont)
For example, if we collect data with 11 survey questions, we create 11 variables in the rows and define information of
each of the variables in the columns in Variable View and 11 variable columns displayed in Data View.

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 2.5 DATA PREPARATION

All researchers have to prepare their data prior to analysis.

While IBM® SPSS® Statistics includes tools for data preparation, sometimes you need
more specialized techniques to get your data ready.

With IBM SPSS Data Preparation, you can easily identify suspicious or invalid cases,
variables and data values; view patterns of missing data; summarize variable distributions;
and more accurately work with algorithms designed for nominal attributes.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable

Variable name The first column in the Variable View is “Name”. We can create a name of the variable that represents
the information we collected. If we collect data about gender, we can name it “gender,” “sex,” and
“gender_identity1”. Once we create a variable name in the Variable View, the variable names are
displayed at the top of the “Data View” screen.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable name

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type
Information for the type of each variable is displayed in the Variable View tab. Under the “Type” column, simply click
the cell associated with the variable of interest. A blue “…” button will appear.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable types

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A variable whose values are numbers.

• Values are displayed in standard numeric format.
Numeric • The Data Editor accepts numeric values in standard format or in scientific notation.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A numeric variable whose values are displayed with commas
delimiting every three places and the period as a decimal delimiter.
Comma • For example, 100,000.00 or 999,988,565.21.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A numeric variable whose values are displayed with periods delimiting every three
places and the comma as a decimal delimiter.
• The Data Editor accepts numeric values for dot variables with or without commas
Dot or in scientific notation.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A numeric variable whose values are displayed with an

imbedded E and a signed power-of-ten exponent.
Scientific
notation Example: 123, 1.23E2, 1.23D2, 1.23E+2.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A numeric variable whose values are displayed in one of several calendar-date or clock time
formats.
• Select the format from the lists.

Date • The century range for two-digit year value is determined by your Options setting (from Edit menu,
choose Options and click the Data tab)

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • A numeric variable whose values are displayed in one of customs currency
format that you have defined in the Currency tab of the Options dialog box
Custom • Defined custom currency characters cannot used in data entry but displayed
currency in the Data editor

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable type • Values of a string variable are not numeric and hence not used in calculations.
• They can contain any characters up to the defined length.
• Uppercase and lowercase letters are considered distinct (also known as alphanumeric
String variable).

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Variable labels

You can write descriptive variables up to 256 characters long and variable labels can contain space and reserved
characters not allowed in variable names.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Value labels
You can assign descriptive value labels for each value of a variable. This is particularly useful if your data file uses
numeric codes to represent non-numeric categories.
Example: code 1 and code 2 for male and female

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

User-defined missing values

Missing values defines specified data values as user-missing. It is often useful to know why information is missing.
Example: Let’s look at the scale variable in column 3. I have two missing values in rows 8 and 11. These are coded as “0”,
which indicates a missing value in my data.

SPSS doesn’t know that my code “0”

means missing data: you must let SPSS
know what your missing value code is
before running any analysis.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Column & Allignment

Column and alignment don’t have any statistical relevance. hey are more often decorative, so they are less used and
discussed in books of stats.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Column & Allignment

If we create a new variable, we will have an 8 column width assign to it by default. So column width refers to a number
of digits or alphabet that can be allocated for a variable.
Example: We create a new variable (Variable View), and type everything as below. If we focus on XYZ, we can see by
default it has been assigned the column of 8 and alignment of Right.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Column & Allignment (cont)

Now, if we click on the Data View, we will find that we don’t have any value for XYZ. So we will add some values like 23,
12, and 13.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Column & Allignment (cont)

From Variable View, we can see its width is 8. If we increase its width by using our mouse (until 20), we can see from Data
View, that its width has increased substantially in the column option. Also, the values of XYZ are aligned to their Right.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Column & Allignment (cont)

If we want to align them in the Center or Left, we can change their alignment. We can click on the Right option of XYZ
variable and select alignment Left like this. If we click on the Data View option, we can see that the variable has been
aligned to Left.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Measurement level
The Measure is used to measure something or something that refers to the property that we have focusing upon.

Example:
1. If we are from an anthropology background, we must be interested in measuring blood glucose levels.
2. If we are from a psychology background, we must be interested in measuring the motivation and personality of
the individual.
3. If we are from a management background, we must be interested in the management process.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Measurement level (cont)

If we select any variable, we can see three types of measure: Nominal, Ordinal, and Scale.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Measurement level (cont)

1. Nominal variable
- variables that come in the format of perfect categories or mutually exclusive categories. It means if we are part of
one category, we cannot be part of another category.
- Example: The Gender variable has two labels male and female. So if we are part of one category, we are already
excluded from other categories. So these categories are mutually exclusive.
- That's why in SPSS, this scale has been shown through a Venn diagram with different colors like this: green, blue,
and red.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Measurement level (cont)

2. Ordinal variable
- we can see three different colors again, but they seem to be ranked order like bars.
- refers to the scale in which the variables can be categorized, but they can also be ranked order.
- Example: The height of a student in the class can be measured in the meters. So it will be a continuous measure.
- But if we measure the height of a student in the class as short height, medium height, and tall height, we can
arrange short, medium, and tall in ascending or descending order.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Measurement level (cont)

3. Scale variable
- There are two types of Continuous scales, which are Interval scale and Ratio scale. .
- Interval scale - liquor type of scale which ask for the opinion on certain topic and responses vary from Strongly
disagree to Strongly agree, and in between, we can have other options. We define a value of 0 to strongly
disagree, until 4 to strongly agree.
- Ratio scale - contains an absolute zero. If we measure the income and report income as zero, it means the person
had no income. It means absolute zero is possible in case of a ratio scale.

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 2.5.1 Defining Variable (cont)

Role
- indicating what role the variable would play in your data analysis, like independent, dependent, or both roles of the
variable.
- It shows six options like Input, Target, Both, None, Partition, and Split

• Input: The variable will be used as a predictor (independent

variable). This is the default assignment for variables.
• Target: The variable will be used as an outcome (dependent
variable).
• Both: The variable will be used as both a predictor and an
outcome (independent and dependent variable).
• None: The variable has no role assignment.
• Partition: The variable will partition the data into separate
samples.
• Split: Used with the IBM® SPSS® Modeler (not IBM®
SPSS® Statistics).
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 2.5.2 Entering Data
As a beginner, you may start from Variable view and the followed by Data View.

Let’s practice!
Table 1 shows five different variables and its description. This is the student’s final examination result on three different
subjects. All of the students are chosen at random from one selected school in Malaysia.

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 2.5.2 Entering Data (cont)
The data presented in Table 2.

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 2.5.2 Entering Data (cont)
In Variable View

Important Notes!
For the first time user, if your
Measure is defined as
Nominal or Ordinal, you
required to fill in Value
Labels. Compulsory! If you
defined as Scale, you do not
require to fill in Value Labels.
Without this information, you
will be harder to understand
the data. When the date
defined, anyone else who
works with the data can
easily distinguish.

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 2.5.2 Entering Data (cont)
In Variable View (cont)

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 2.5.2 Entering Data (cont)
In Variable View (cont)

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 2.5.3 Inserting and Deleting Variable and Cases
Insert variable
Right Click on mouse Click on Insert variable. A new variable (column) will be inserted.

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 2.5.3 Inserting and Deleting Variable and Cases (cont)
Insert cases
Right Click on mouse Click on Insert case. A new case (row) will be inserted.

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 2.5.3 Inserting and Deleting Variable and Cases (cont)
Delete variable
Right Click on mouse Click on Clear or Use Delete button.

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 2.5.3 Inserting and Deleting Variable and Cases (cont)
Delete variable (cont)
Right Click on mouse Click on Clear or Use Delete button.

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 2.5.3 Inserting and Deleting Variable and Cases (cont)
Delete cases
Right Click on mouse Click on Clear or Use Delete button.

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 2.6 DATA SCREENING

Data screening is important stage to ensure the best results from data analysis.

Checking for the typo error, transforming the reverse question, handling missing data,
removing the outlier and checking normality assumption are must.

Previously, we have raw data based on student’s final examination result.

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 2.6 DATA SCREENING (cont)

Based on Table 3, the data have been manipulated for the purpose of explaining this
section.

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 2.6.1 Errors in Data Entry
The data file must be carefully screened to avoid errors in data entry. For example, while responses to the attitude
items are being entered, out of range values can be detected easily using Frequencies or Descriptive commands and
replaced in the data file with the correct value.

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2.6.1 Errors in Data Entry (cont)

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2.6.1 Errors in Data Entry (cont)

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2.6.1 Errors in Data Entry (cont) NOTES!
For the first-time user, there are 5 common expect to consider
for data screening which are accuracy of the data file, reverse
questions, missing data, outlier and normality test (if required).

It is not possible to be 11

Missing 2 information

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data
There have 3 options to solve the missing value. If there is a pattern to the missing data or there are too many missing,
chose one of the following options:

Option 1:
Replace values with numbers that are known from prior knowledge or from an educated guess. Easily done but can lead
to researcher bias if you’re not careful.

Option 2:
Replace missing values with variable mean. The simplest option but it does lower variability and in turn can bias results.

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 1: Select Analyze Menu Click on Descriptive Statistics Frequencies

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 2: Select appropriate variable.
Step 3: Click on the arrow button into Variable box.

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 4: Click on Statistics Choose the appropriate statistics which is mean.

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 5: Click on Continue.
Step 6: Click on OK

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 7: From Statistics output, compute group mean using the following formula:

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
There have 3 options to solve the missing value. If there is a pattern to the missing data or there are too many missing,
chose one of the following options:

Option 3:
Using regression to predict the missing values. Other variables act as IVs predicting the variable with missing values
(which acts as the DV). This method is only works if there is significant prediction of the variable with the missing
values. Variability is still reduced but it is more objective than a guess and not as blind as inserting mean.

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)
Step 1: Clear the row of the missing data
(note: based on the data, only variables Malay have missing data, however we need to clear row includes other
variables)

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)

Step 2: Select Analyze Menu Click on Regression Click on Linear

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)

Step 3: Select the appropriate variable.

Step 4: Click on the arrow button into Dependent box.
Step 5: Click on the arrow button into Independent box.

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)

Step 6: Click on Ok.

Use this data as a constant

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 2.6.2 How to Handle Missing Data (cont)

Step 7: From coefficient table, predict missing value using the following formula:

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption

The assumption of normality is a prerequisite for many inferential statistics techniques.

There are number of different ways to explore this assumption; Skewness and Kurtosis, Normality plot and Normality
test.

✓ The distribution behavior of the data can be seen from mean, median and mode. If these three central tendency
measures are equal, then the data is said to be symmetric or normal. Meanwhile, if the data does not indicate
symmetrical or not normal.
✓ Normal distribution: symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
✓ Skewness: the curve appears distorted or skewed either to the left or to the right.
✓ Kurtosis: the sharpness of the peak of a distribution curve.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run Kurtosis and Skewness
Step 1: Select Analyze Menu Click Descriptive Statistics Click on Descriptive.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run Kurtosis and Skewness
Step 2: Select the appropriate variables, example, English, Malay, and Mathematics subject score.
Step 3: Click on the arrow button into Variable(s) box.
Step 4: Click on Option Select Kurtosis and Skewness.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont) NOTES!
there have five possible results from distribution curve which are
How to Run Kurtosis and Skewness skew to the left (negative value), skew to the right (positive
Step 5: Click on Continue Click on OK. value), platykurtic (< 3) or leptokurtic (> 3), and normal.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run Kurtosis and Skewness

skewness statistics kurtosis statistics

Compute Skewness = Compute Kurtosis =
skewness standard error kurtosis standard error
−0.547 −1.175
Skewness (English) = = −1.2604 Kurtosis (English) = = −1.3905
0.434 0.845

−0.344 −1.333
Skewness (Malay) = = −0.7926 Kurtosis (Malay) = = −1.5775
0.434 0.845

0.912 0.548
Skewness (Mathematics) = = 2.1014 Kurtosis (Mathematics) = = 0.6485
0.434 0.845
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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test
Step 1: Select Analyze Menu Click Descriptive Statistics Click on Explore.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test
Step 2: Select the appropriate variables, example, English subject Score.
Step 3: Click on the arrow button into Dependent list box.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test
Step 4: Select the Plot radio button Click on Plot.
Step 5: Select the Box plot & Normality plot with tests radio button.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test
Step 6: Click on Continue Click on Ok.

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test

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 2.6.3 Normality Assumption (cont)
How to Run a Normality Plot and Test

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 2.6.4 Transformation

SPSS transformation commands (or simply “transformations”) can be loosely defined as commands that are not
immediately carried out when you run them. Instead, they are kept in mind by SPSS and executed only when necessary.
The table below gives an overview of SPSS' main transformation commands.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Transform Data into New Variable
From Example data, we want to transform the student’s score into percentage (carry marks).

Step 1: Click on Transform menu Click on Compute Variable.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Transform Data into New Variable (cont)
Step 2: Name your new variable in Target Variable Insert the Numeric Expression Click on OK.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Transform Data into New Variable (cont)

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data
Recode data mean how you want to make the data in certain classes or category.

Step 1: Click on Transform menu Click on Recode into Different Variables.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)
Step 2: Click on variable that you want to recode Click on arrow button Enter new name in the Output
Variable Click Change Click on Old and New Values.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)
Step 3: Enter the range of the new variable Insert the new Value Add Continue Ok.

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)

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 2.6.4 Transformation (cont)
How to Recode the Data (cont)

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